Prospective association of peer influence, school engagement, drinking expectancies, and parent expectations with drinking initiation among sixth graders
Introduction
Early initiation is a risk factor for subsequent alcohol and drug abuse Grant, 1997, Hawkins et al., 1992 and delinquent and problem behavior Dawkins, 1997, Gruber et al., 1996. Therefore, preventing early adolescents from drinking initiation is a national health objective [U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990]. The prevalence of drinking in the past 30 days increases from less than 7% among 6th graders (Simons-Morton et al., 1999) to about 50% of 12th graders (Johnston, O'Malley, & Bachman, 2002). Despite substantial research on the topic (Hawkins et al., 1992; Patraitis et al., 1995), the predictors of early initiation of alcohol use have not been fully elucidated. There is long-standing research interest in the potential influence of social influences, social attachments and commitments (Hawkins et al., 1992, Hawkins & Weis, 1985; Patraitis et al., 1995), and drinking expectancies (Goldman, 1994) on early initiation and abuse of alcohol.
Social control (Hawkins & Weis, 1985) and problem behavior theories (Jessor, Donovan, & Costa, 1991) suggest that attachments to conventional social institutions, such as family and school, and commitment to conventional pathways of achievement are inconsistent with antisocial behavior, may discourage youth from associating with problem-behaving peers (Elliot, Huizinga, & Meanard, 1989), and may initiate substance use. As with parenting behavior, attachment and commitment to conventional institutions and goals may exert direct and indirect influence on adolescent behavior. Positive social attachments and commitments may directly discourage substance use by providing constructive alternative activities and opportunities for reinforcement and socialization with prosocial peers and adults. Positive social attachments and commitments may provide indirect protective effects against drinking by fostering conventional attitudes about teen abstinence and the relative advantages of conventional versus antisocial behaviors.
The influence of teens and parents on adolescent substance use has been studied in a number of investigations. Social influences are thought to effect alcohol behavior directly through supervision, modeling, and social reinforcement and indirectly by shaping perceptions, attitudes, and expectations about alcohol Ennett & Bauman, 1991, Patraitis et al., 1995 MERGEFORMAT Petraitis et al., 1995. Associating with peers who drink and engage in other problem behaviors is among the most consistent predictors of adolescent substance use Hawkins et al., 1992, Patraitis et al., 1995 MERGEFORMAT Petraitis et al., 1995. Parenting behaviors such as monitoring, involvement, and expectations have sometimes been found to be associated with delayed initiation Ary et al., 1993, Chilcoate et al., 1995, Cohen et al., 1994, Simons-Morton et al., 1997, Steinberg et al., 1994. However, the findings are not consistent and it is not clear which parenting behaviors may be most important at what age or how these behaviors may affect alcohol initiation and use.
Favorable drinking expectancies among adolescents have been associated with drinking initiation (Killen et al., 1996), and some evidence indicates that they predict adult drinking problems (Stacy, Newcomb, & Bentler, 1991). Because behavior is motivated in part by anticipated consequences or expectations about the outcomes of anticipated behavior Bandura, 1986, Goldman, 1994, the expectation that the consequences of drinking would be positive encourages drinking initiation. Conversely, the expectation that the outcomes of drinking would be negative would discourage early initiation. While some research suggests that drinking expectancies may be formed at a relatively early age (Miller, Smith, & Goldman, 1990), expectancies develop over time, the product of accumulated learning experiences from media, social and cultural influences, and other sources. Expectancies are though to be a primary mechanism by which early learning experiences influence drug choices later in time (Goldman, 1994).
The purpose of this research is to examine among early adolescents the role of peer and parent influences, school engagement, and drinking expectancies assessed at the beginning of 6th grade on initiation of drinking at the end of 6th grade. The research also examines the potential moderation of the effect of parenting practices on the relationship between drinking expectancies and peer influences on drinking initiation.
Section snippets
Procedures
Two successive cohorts of students in four middle schools in one suburban Maryland school district were surveyed at the beginning (Time 1) and again toward the end of the 6th grade (Time 2). School records indicate that 24% of the students in the participating schools were enrolled in the national free or reduced school lunch program. Special education students with reading difficulties were excluded from data collection. Students who provided written parental consent completed a questionnaire
Discussion
In our sample, the prevalence of drinking in the last 30 days was similar to the rate reported for sixth graders in a recent Maryland statewide survey (Maryland State Department of Education, 2001). We could, however, find no published reports with which to compare the increase in the prevalence of drinking in the past 30 days from 5.5% at the beginning of 6th grade to 12.6% at the end of the 6th grade. This greater than doubling in about 6 months confirms the importance of early adolescence as
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