Original reportsNeighborhood Poverty as a Predictor of Intimate Partner Violence Among White, Black, and Hispanic Couples in the United States: A Multilevel Analysis
Introduction
Spousal violence research over the past 30 years has identified a complex array of individual-, household-, and societal-level factors associated with its occurrence 1, 2, 3, 4. While some researchers have analyzed the role of macro-level correlates (e.g., indices of gender inequality at the state level, societal norms approving marital aggression) 5, 6, 7, most studies have focused on the sociodemographic (e.g., age, income, education level) and psychological characteristics (e.g., level of marital discord, verbal aggression) of the perpetrator and/or victim of partner violence without explicitly modeling the role of socioenvironmental or ecologic factors. For example, Sorenson et al., in their multivariate analysis of data from the National Survey on Families and Households, found that urban dwellers were 40% more likely to report physical violence in their marriage in the previous year than suburban dwellers (8). In their study, there were no a priori assumptions concerning the possible association between characteristics of the urban environment (e.g., population density, levels of crime) and the occurrence of partner violence. Rather, residence in an urban (or suburban/rural) area was treated as an individual sociodemographic characteristic.
A growing body of epidemiologic research over the last 10 years has investigated the association between socioenvironmental factors and various health outcomes and behaviors 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24. In particular, community socioeconomic characteristics, such as levels of neighborhood poverty and area unemployment, have been linked to numerous individual-level health outcomes. For example, residence in a socioeconomically disadvantaged area (typically measured at the census tract level) has been shown to be associated with increased risk of having a low birthweight infant (19); alcohol-related problems among black men (22); initiation of sexual activity during adolescence (17); household criminal victimization 14, 15; prevalence of coronary heart disease and coronary risk factors (23); and all-cause mortality 9, 10. The publication of these studies has been paralleled by articles and monographs highlighting the utility and methodology of contextual models 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 that seek to incorporate community or aggregate-level characteristics into a multilevel framework of individual- and group-level predictors of individual risk (25).
While there is considerable evidence that individual- and household-level indicators of low socioeconomic status (measured through unemployment, blue-collar occupational status, and level of education and income) are associated with intimate partner violence 8, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, few studies have explored whether couples residing in impoverished neighborhoods are at greater risk for partner violence than couples residing in more affluent areas. A recent ecologic study by Miles-Doan and Kelly that examined rates of police-reported partner violence within 131 census tracts in Duval County, Florida found that median rates of partner violence were nine times higher in concentrated poverty tracts than in non-poverty tracts (35). O'Campo and colleagues (36) analyzed neighborhood- and individual-level predictors of male partner violence during the childbearing year using data from 157 women residing within 76 census tracts in Baltimore, Maryland. Their findings indicate that women residing in census tracts in the lowest quartile of per capita income were four times more likely to report partner violence than women residing in census tracts in the highest quartile of per capita income. An association of similar magnitude was found for women residing in census tracts characterized by high vs. low unemployment rates. These effects were independent of individual-level income. Although they were confined to discrete geographic areas, these two studies provide limited evidence that residence in an impoverished neighborhood may be associated with the occurrence of intimate partner violence.
The present study, based on a national probability sample of married and cohabiting couples in the 48 contiguous states, seeks to test the hypothesis that couples who reside in impoverished neighborhoods are at increased risk for partner violence, after controlling for individual- and household-level factors, compared to couples residing in non-impoverished neighborhoods. Specifically, this study aims to assess the contribution of neighborhood poverty (measured at the census tract level) to the risk of partner violence among a national sample of white, black and Hispanic couples.
Section snippets
Sampling
Subjects were selected through a multistage area household probability sampling procedure from individuals 18 years of age or older living in households in the 48 contiguous states. Only married or cohabiting couples were included for the final stage of selection. The sample had 100 PSUs (primary sampling units based on counties or groups of counties), and included over-samples of black and Hispanic couples. There were 1925 eligible couples selected for the survey; 1635 couples participated for
Bivariate Association Between Neighborhood Poverty and Partner Violence
The study found significant differences across racial/ethnic groups in the proportion of couples living in impoverished neighborhoods . Approximately half of the black and Hispanic couples (47% and 54%, respectively) resided in impoverished neighborhoods as measured through the 1990 Census. Only 11% of white couples, however, resided in such neighborhoods. The pair-wise association between the occurrence of partner violence and residence in an impoverished
The Role of Neighborhood Poverty
As noted in a previous analysis of this study population (44), the 12-month prevalence of interpersonal violence among married and cohabiting couples varied significantly by race/ethnicity, with black couples reporting the highest rates, followed by Hispanics and whites, respectively. The current analysis indicates that the contribution of neighborhood poverty to the risk of partner violence also varies by race/ethnicity. Although a positive association was observed within each racial/ethnic
Conclusion
The results of the analysis lend support to the hypothesis that characteristics of the socioenvironment, such as neighborhood poverty, are associated with the occurrence of intimate partner violence. These findings are consistent with the results of the multilevel analysis reported by O'Campo et al. (36), although that study was based on a sample consisting of pregnant, mostly African-American women residing within the city of Baltimore, Maryland. The present study is the first contextual
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by an Intimate Partner Violence Prevention Research Grant (grant no. 914053) from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and by the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (grants no. RO1AA10908 and R37AA10908). The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance of Paul Gruenewald, Ph.D.
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