OXYTOCIN MAY MEDIATE THE BENEFITS OF POSITIVE SOCIAL INTERACTION AND EMOTIONS1
Section snippets
INTRODUCTION
This paper examines the hypothesis that positive social interactions and emotions are associated with an unified pattern of physiological and behavioral events. Social interactions incorporate the exchange of physical and emotional energy. As a consequence these interactions, and the accompanying positive emotional states, lead to physiological adaptations necessary for relaxation, digestion, anabolic metabolism, growth and healing. The corresponding mental states associated with positive
NEUROENDOCRINE MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN DEFENSE AND FIGHT–FLIGHT REACTIONS
When an animal displays active responding to stress by escaping or dealing with environmental challenge, fight–flight prevails and the sympathetic adrenomedullary system is preferentially activated. The fight–flight response is associated with a neurogenic increase of cardiac output facilitated by concomitant blood volume centralization due to widespread vasoconstriction. Here the increased cardiac output favours skeletal muscles, myocardium and brain as their resistance vessels become dilated,
NEUROENDOCRINE MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN POSITIVE SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
Far less is known about the neuroendocrine mechanisms of positive interactive behaviors than those of defense reactions. Suckling or breastfeeding, aspects of maternal behavior, represent examples of positive social interactions which have been explored in depth from a physiological and neuroendocrine point of view. In order to facilitate the description of neuroendocrine mechanisms, this kind of interaction can be divided into different phases of functional activity. Thus, before each suckling
OXYTOCIN
Oxytocin released by the suckling stimulus during lactation causes ejection of milk by contracting the myoepithelial cells in the mammary glands. As will be discussed below, other suckling-induced behavioral, physiological and endocrinological changes occurring during lactation also may be caused by oxytocin.
Oxytocin, which is produced in the supraoptic (SON) and paraventricular (PVN) nuclei of the hypothalamus, is released into the circulation from magnocellular neurons which extend down to
ROLE OF OXYTOCIN IN LACTATION
Oxytocin facilitates the onset of maternal behaviour in sheep and rats and has been shown to promote bonding between ewe and lamb (Kendrick et al., 1987). Considering the physiological effects of oxytocin, the role of this hormone in the ‘giving’ aspect of interactions with offspring is not restricted to milk ejection. Oxytocin also induces vasodilation in the skin overlying the mammary gland, thus promoting transfer of warmth to the pups (Eriksson et al., 1996). Furthermore, oxytocin helps to
MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN EFFECTS CAUSED BY OXYTOCIN
Most behavioural and physiological effects induced by administration of oxytocin can be blocked by an antagonist directed against the uterine receptor. The increased weight gain and the enhanced healing rate of wounds also can be prevented if the oxytocin treatment is combined with administration of the oxytocin antagonist (Petersson et al., in press aUvnäs-Moberg et al., 1996a, Uvnäs-Moberg et al., 1996b). In contrast, the ‘antistress’ effects cannot be blocked by this antagonist, suggesting
ROLE OF OXYTOCIN IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS IN BREASTFEEDING WOMEN
As mentioned above, oxytocin promotes maternal behaviour and attachment between mother and offspring in sheep and rats. But does oxytocin induce analogous effects in humans? There is some indirect evidence showing that this may indeed be the case. Mothers having had their newborns skin-to-skin immediately after birth, spend more time with their babies, they interact more with their infants during breastfeeding (Widström et al., 1990), and breastfeed for a longer period (Klaus et al., 1972,
OTHER TYPES OF INTERACTION IN WHICH EFFECTS OF OXYTOCIN MAY BE INVOLVED
In this review, the role of oxytocin in behavioral, physiological and endocrine aspects of lactation has been emphasized. However, oxytocin also may play a similar role in other kinds of social interaction. Oxytocin is known to stimulate sexual behavior in rats and has been shown to be released in response to sexual interactions in both rats and humans. It is, therefore, possible that oxytocin is involved in some of the physiological and behavioral adaptations that occur during sexual behavior (
MECHANISMS THROUGH WHICH SOCIAL BEHAVIOR CAN REDUCE STRESS AND PROMOTE HEALTH
Oxytocin has emerged as a core component of the mechanisms mediating the health benefits and antistress effects of positive social interactions. It has been shown that oxytocin treatments increase social contact in several animal species (Carter et al., 1995, Witt et al., 1992). In addition, in monogamous voles, oxytocin is essential for selective social behaviors and the formation of pair bond (Williams et al., 1994).
Positive social behaviors and social bonding are characterized by repeated
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by grants from the Swedish Medical Council (K98-04X-05207-21C).
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- 1
The purpose of this paper is to describe the neuroendocrine mechanisms of positive social interactions.