Women, work, and well-being 1950–2000:: a review and methodological critique
Introduction
In many industrialized countries, such as the US, the participation of women in the labor force increased markedly across the 20th century (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2000). In other countries, such as Germany, the participation rate of women remained fairly constant across the 20th century, but women from younger cohorts became more likely to work full-time and to return to the labor market between or after childbirth (Maas, Borchelt, & Mayer, 1999). These historical changes provided a unique opportunity for researchers to investigate the effects of multiple roles on women's well being. Consequently, there was a growing interest in the impact of (the additional role of) paid employment after World War II. Despite numerous efforts, however, the understanding of the underlying processes is still rather limited. This review attempts to summarize 50 years of research on the impact of employment on women's physical and mental health. Because of their importance in evaluating the evidence, issues of conceptualization, measurement, and study design will be discussed first.
Two competing models guide research on the effects of multiple roles: the stress hypothesis (also known as role strain or scarcity; Goode, 1960) and the enhancement hypothesis (also known as role expansion or accumulation; Marks, 1977; Sieber, 1974). Because social roles are associated with daily demands and hassles as well as with major life events, the stress hypothesis holds that an additional role reduces an individual's well being. At the same time, role involvement provides access to resources that may be instrumental in coping with demands. According to the enhancement hypothesis, therefore, individuals with an additional role should be in better health than individuals without this role—despite the additional demands and stressors it entails (Gove & Tudor, 1973; Kessler & McRae, 1982; Ross, Mirowsky, & Huber, 1983a). Other models encompass further properties of the living situation, individual expectations, and societal norms (job-stress model, person-environment fit model (P-E fit), role quality model, gender model). However, the majority of researchers has based their investigations on role theory and have chosen the variables of interest accordingly.
Researchers usually operationalize the exposure or treatment variable as employment status. Women who are employed at the time of the study (sometimes including those looking for a job) are compared to those who are not in paid employment. As many researchers have pointed out, this dichotomy lacks reliability, i.e., it is temporally unstable, and may lack validity, i.e., it does not capture interindividual differences in labor market participation very well (Pavalko & Smith, 1999; Repetti, Matthews, & Waldron, 1989). The comparison category may be made up of such different groups as permanent homemakers, women on maternity leave, women who are—temporarily or permanently—ill or disabled, unemployed women looking for jobs, and students. Because of the fragmentation of female labor market participation, characterized by moves in and out of the labor force as well as by changes of occupation or career paths, assessing employment status at a single point in time seems to be a suboptimal way of capturing women's work experiences (but see Weatherall, Joshi, & Macran, 1994, p. 293, who reported no substantial gain “by knowing whether a worker in 1981 was also in that category in 1971”). Therefore, some researchers draw on time-use information (daily, weekly, study-period, or life-time level) to quantify role involvement (Adelmann, Antonucci, Crohan, & Coleman, 1990; Bird & Fremont, 1991; Hibbard & Pope, 1991; Kotler & Wingard, 1989; Moen, Dempster-McClain, & Williams, 1992; Pavalko & Smith, 1999). Alternatively, the number of enacted roles may be used as a predictor. This predictor has been represented by different kinds and numbers of categories (e.g., Pietromonaco, Manis, & Frohardt-Lane, 1986, distinguished 5 roles; Reitzes & Mutran, 1994, distinguished 12 roles). Some perspectives focus on subjective experiences and expectations. For example, Barnett and Baruch's concept of role quality is operationalized via the balance of rewards and concerns afforded by a role (Barnett & Baruch, 1985), while in the P-E fit approach, expectations and preferences are compared to actual role involvement (Waldron & Herold, 1986; Wethington & Kessler, 1989). Objective working conditions are rarely considered in this area (but see Hall, 1992).
Different research traditions tend to prefer specific outcome measures for conceptual, methodological, and historical reasons. In the initial studies on the effects of women's employment, measures of psychological distress were used as dependent variables (see Warr & Parry, 1982b, for a classification). This was a result of the attention attracted by the sex differential in depression, which was ascribed to differences in the rewards provided by the traditional sex roles (Radloff, 1975; Rosenfield, 1980; Ross et al., 1983a).
Large surveys usually include ratings of respondents’ general physical health or complaints (Bartley, Sacker, Firth, & Fitzpatrick, 1999; Waldron & Herold, 1986). Researchers in the tradition of the job-stress model usually prefer biological outcome variables such as neuroendocrine changes or cardiovascular risk factors; in large surveys, however, they have to rely on self-reports (Emslie, Hunt, & Macintyre, 1999; Lennon & Rosenfield, 1992). Researchers with a background in demography or social epidemiology have related employment to prospectively collected mortality information (Martikainen, 1995). Convergence or dissociations within or between these groups of measures have rarely been established in primary research (but see, e.g., Bekker, de Jong, Zijlstra, & van Landeghem, 2000). Nevertheless, a comparison of different outcomes and their time courses is of theoretical as well as practical importance.
Rather than asking whether employment is adverse or beneficial per se (stress vs. enhancement), the question seems to be under which conditions it becomes adverse or beneficial. The same roles can have different effects depending on the prevailing conditions or the context (Waldron, Weiss, & Hughes, 1998). The role-substitution hypothesis suggests that roles yielding similar resources may have a substitutive relationship, such as that of employment and marriage. Taking on an additional substitutive role will be of little additional benefit to health. The role-complementation hypothesis suggests that specific role combinations, such as that of parenthood and marriage, have complementary or synergistic effects. In these combinations, the benefit from one role is enhanced by the other.
Beyond the influences of employment, marital, and parental status, exposure to stressors and the availability of resources vary as a function of age, occupation, and/or occupational status (Moen & Yu, 1999). Conflicts between roles change over the life course, as do the underlying demands and resources. Middle-aged women, blue-collar workers and those at the lower end of the status hierarchy are thought to be most exposed to stressors while having few resources available (Arber, Gilbert, & Dale, 1985). Consequently, it may be that only middle-class women experience a positive relationship between employment and well being. Alternatively, working-class women may benefit more from employment because their non-occupational environment is less favorable than that of middle-class women (Warr & Parry, 1982b).
If all the variables of interest are assessed via self-report, the association between predictors and criteria may be based in part on shared method variance or other biases (Watson & Pennebaker, 1989). Partialling the prior from the subsequent measure of an outcome variable has been proposed as a way of controlling for the effects of stable third variables such as negative affectivity (Spector, Zapf, Chen, & Frese, 2000). Another way of controlling biases is to use multiple measures of predictors or outcomes.
Since the seminal studies by Jahoda, Lazarsfeld, & Zeisel (1975), most researchers have seemed to assume a causal link between employment and well-being. However, the statistical associations reported in the literature (mostly based on posttest-only designs with unequivalent groups) do not allow causal inferences to be drawn because alternative explanations cannot be ruled out (Cook & Campbell, 1979). Prior interindividual differences in health may lead to differential acquisition or relinquishment of roles. This phenomenon is known as reverse causation or the healthy-worker effect (Kandel & Davies, 1986; Waldron, Herold, & Dunn, 1982a; Waldron, Herold, Dunn, & Staum, 1982b). Employment status and health may also be the result of indirect selective processes, the antecedents of which (e.g., education) may or may not have been measured. This phenomenon is referred to as gravitation or drift. Most likely, there is a reciprocal relationship, i.e., selective and causative processes operate simultaneously and interactively (Waldron et al., 1982b).
The impact of employment has been investigated with many different study designs and analytical strategies. A small number of studies have employed macro-level data, i.e., data with some geopolitical entity as the unit of analysis (Pampel & Zimmer, 1989). The usual design, however, is an observational study based on individuals. Observational studies may be cross-sectional or longitudinal; most take a cross-sectional approach.
Most authors seem to implicitly assume that longitudinal studies would confirm their correlational findings. Some authors have been able to demonstrate that beneficial effects persist above and beyond selection (Vagerö and Lahelma's (1998), Verbrugge (1983); Wethington & Kessler, 1989) whereas others have not (Jennings, Mazaik, & McKinlay, 1984). The latter have argued that the higher prevalence of chronic health conditions among homemakers can be accounted for almost completely by the proportion of women who report ill health as a reason for not being employed.
For causal inferences to be warranted, a longitudinal design alone is not sufficient. The minimum requirements for a rigorous test of the causal effect of employment are as follows: (a) observing employment status (or better: employment history), (b) assessing all relevant confounding factors (related to both employment and health), (c) assessing subsequent change in health, and (d) controlling the confounding factors statistically when regressing change in health on employment status (for elaborations of the causation issue, see, Cook & Campbell, 1979; Zapf, Dormann, & Frese, 1996). Because very few studies fulfill all of these requirements, it remains to be demonstrated whether methodologically sound longitudinal studies confirm the evidence generated by less rigorous approaches.
The above reasoning can be condensed into the following questions: (a) Do methodologically sound longitudinal studies confirm the cross-sectional findings? (b) Do different outcome measures yield converging results? In order to answer these questions, for each group of outcome measures we summarized the methodologically sound longitudinal studies that conformed to the minimum requirements (“Type II studies”) and compared their results to those of the remaining studies (“Type I studies”).
Section snippets
Literature searches
The aim of the literature search was to identify all relevant empirical studies on the impact of employment on women's health conducted between January 1950 and December 2000. In addition to published studies, we also tried to locate unpublished documents. We aimed to conduct as precise a search as possible, with “precision” referring to the ratio of relevant documents found to all those retrieved (White, 1994). Our search activities comprised three main strategies. The first was a
Results
Table 2 contains the vote-counting results for Type I studies and Type II studies. In general, the outcome of Type II studies is residualized change adjusted for varying confounders. Therefore, the size of the coefficients reported below reflects the increase in complaints, i.e., the smaller the coefficient, the smaller the increase.
Discussion
The main result of this research synthesis is that methodologically sound longitudinal studies confirm the findings of cross-sectional research showing that employment has either beneficial or neutral effects on women's health. Overall, there is agreement between Type I and Type II studies, as well as between the different outcome measures, that employment has no adverse effects in the general population of employed women. Some effects are moderated by other variables such as marital and family
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Claudia Semmler for her assistance with the literature search and collection. This research was funded by a grant from the Volkswagen Foundation to the first author.
Studies preceded by one asterisk were cross-sectional (Type I), studies preceded by two asterisks have longitudinal designs (Type I), those with three asterisks were coded as Type II studies. Studies without asterisk are those quoted in the introduction and discussion sections.
Author contributions: PK conceived the
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