Abstract
The present study examined the link between sexual orientation and adjustment in a community sample of 97 sexual minority (gay male, lesbian, bisexual, and questioning) high school students, taking into account their experiences of peer victimization and social support within peer and family contexts. Adolescents were identified in a large-scale survey study conducted at 5 high schools. They were matched to a comparison sample of their heterosexual peers. Sexual minority adolescents reported more externalizing behaviors and depression symptoms than heterosexual youth. Compared to their heterosexual peers, sexual minority youth reported more sexual harassment, more bullying, less closeness with their mothers, and less companionship with their best friends. There were no significant differences between gay male, lesbian, bisexual, and questioning adolescents. Overall, both victimization and social support mediated the link between sexual orientation and psychosocial symptoms. Among sexual minority youth, the link between social support and externalizing was mediated by experiences of peer victimization. These findings highlight the contextual risk and protective factors associated with non-heterosexual sexual orientation in accounting for the emotional and behavioral problems in this population.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M., and Edelbrock, C. (1991). Manual for the Youth Self-Report and Profile. Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT.
American Association of University Women. (1993). Hostile Hallways: The AAUW Survey on Sexual Harassment in America's Schools. American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, Washington, DC.
Armsden, G. C., and Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. J. Youth Adolesc. 16: 427–454.
Baron, R., and Kenny, D. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 31: 1173–1182.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., and Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck Depression Inventory—Second Edition: Manual. Harcourt Brace, San Antonio.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychol. Bull. 112: 155–159.
Connolly, J., and Konarski, R. (1994). Peer self-concept in adolescence: Analysis of factor structure and of associations with peer experience. J. Res. Adolesc. 4: 385–403.
Cramer, D. W., and Roach, A. J. (1988). Coming out to mom and dad: A study of gay males and their relationships with their parents. J. Homosex. 15: 79–91.
Furman, W., and Buhrmester, D. (1992). Age and sex differences in perceptions of networks of personal relationships. Child Dev. 63: 103–115.
Garofalo, R., Wolf, R., Kessel, S., Palfrey, J., and DuRant, R. (1998). The association between health risk behaviours and sexual orientation among a school-based sample of adolescents. Pediatrics 101: 895–902.
Gonsiorek, J. C. (1991). The empirical basis for the demise of the illness model of homosexuality. In Gonsiorek, J. C., and Weinrich, J. D. (eds.), Homosexuality: Research Implications for Public Policy. Sage, Beverly Hills, CA, pp. 115–136.
Hammond, N. (1986). Chemical abuse in lesbian and gay adolescents. Paper presented at the Symposium on Gay and Lesbian Adolescents, Minneapolis, MN.
Hanish, L., and Guerra, N. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of patterns of adjustment following peer victimization. Dev. Psychopathol. 14: 69–89.
Hartos, J. L., and Power, T. G. (1997). Mothers' awareness of their early adolescents' stressors: Relation between awareness and adolescent adjustment. J. Early Adolesc. 17: 371–389.
Herek, G. M., Cogan, J. C., and Gillis, J. R. (1999). Psychological sequelae of hate–crime victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 67: 945–951.
Hersch, P. (1991). Gays and lesbians in therapy: Secret lives. The Family Therapy Networker. Jan/Feb: 37–43.
Hershberger, S., and D'Augelli, A. (1995). The impact of victimization on the mental health and suicidality of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths. Dev. Psychol. 31: 65–74.
Hill, J. P., and Holmbeck, G. N. (1986). Attachment and autonomy during adolescence. Ann. Child Dev. 3: 145–189.
Hodges, E., Boivin, M., Vitaro, F., and Bukowski, W. (1999). The power of friendship: Protection against an escalating cycle of peer victimization. Dev. Psychol. 35: 94–101.
Hodges, E., and Perry, D. (1999). Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 76: 677–685.
Lerner, R. M., and Simi, N. L. (2000). A holistic, integrated model of risk and protection in adolescence: A developmental contextual perspective about research, programs, and policies. In Bergman, L., Cairns, R., Nilsson, L., and Nystedt, L. (eds.), Developmental Science and the Holistic Approach. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 421–443.
Luthar, S. (1993). Annotation: Methodological and conceptual issues in the study of resilience. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 34: 441–453.
MacKinnon, D. P., Warsi, G., and Dwyer, J. H. (1995). A simulation study of mediated effect measures. Multivariate Behav. Res. 30: ii.
McMaster, L., Connolly, J., Pepler, D., and Craig, W. (2002). Peer to peer sexual harassment in early adolescence: A developmental perspective. Dev. Psychopathol. 14: 91–105.
Martin, A. D., and Hetrick, E. S. (1988). The stigmatization of the gay and lesbian adolescent. J. Homosex. 15: 515–518.
Nesmith, A., Burton, D., and Cosgrove, T. (1999). Gay, lesbian and bisexual youth and young adults: Social support in their own words. J. Homosex. 37: 97–108.
Olweus, D. (1989). A Questionnaire for Students (Junior and Senior Versions). Unpublished manuscript.
Olweus, D. (1993). Victimization by peers: Antecedents and long term outcomes. In Rubin, K. H., and Asendorpf, J. B. (eds.), Social Withdrawal, Inhibition, and Shyness in Childhood. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 315–341.
Patterson, C. J. (1995). Sexual orientation and human development: An overview. Dev. Psychol. 31: 3–11.
Remafedi, G. J. (1987). Adolescent homosexuality: Psychosocial and medical implications. Pediatrics 79: 331–337.
Remafedi, G., Resnick, M., Blum, R., and Harris, L. (1992). Demography of sexual orientation in adolescents. Pediatrics 89: 714–721.
Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Rosario, M., Van Rossem, R., Reid, H., and Gillis, R. (1995). Prevalence, course, and predictors of multiple problem behaviours among gay and bisexual male adolescents. Dev. Psychol. 31: 75–85.
Russell, S., Seif, H., and Truong, N. (2001). School outcomes of sexual minority youth in the United States: Evidence from a national study. J. Adolesc. 21: 111–127.
Safren, S. A., and Heimberg, R. G. (1999). Depression, hopelessness, suicidality and related factors in sexual minority and heterosexual adolescents. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 67: 859–866.
Savin-Williams, R. C. (1990). Gay and Lesbian Youths: Expressions of Identity. Hemisphere, Washington, DC.
Savin-Williams, R. C. (1994). Verbal and physical abuse as stressors in the lives of lesbian, gay male, and bisexual youths: Associations with school problems, running away, substance abuse, prostitutions, and suicide. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 62: 261–269.
Savin-Williams, R. C. (2001). A critique of research on sexual-minority youths. J. Adolesc. 21: 5–13.
Straus, M. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. J. Marriage Fam. 41: 75–88.
Telljohann, S. K., and Price, J. H. (1993). A qualitative examination of adolescent homosexuals' life experiences: Ramifications for secondary school personnel. J. Homosex. 26: 41–56.
Troiden, R. R. (1989). The formation of homosexual identities. J. Homosex. 17: 43–73.
Waldner, L., and Magruder, B. (1999). Coming out to parents: Perceptions of family relations, perceived resources and identity expression as predictors of identity disclosure for gay and lesbian adolescents. J. Homosex. 37: 83–100.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Ms. Williams completed her M.A. in Clinical-Developmental Psychology at York University in Toronto, Ontario. She is currently working on her Ph.D. Her research interests include adolescent sexual orientation, adolescent romantic relationships, and dating violence.
Dr. Connolly is a Professor of Psychology at York University. She received her Ph.D. from Concordia University and is a Registered Psychologist in the Province of Ontario. Her current research examines adolescent romantic relationships and the peer context.
Dr. Pepler is a Professor of Psychology at York University and Psychologist at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Waterloo and is a Registered Psychologist in the Province of Ontario. Her current research examines aggression and victimization among adolescents with a concern to the processes related to these problems over the lifespan.
Dr. Craig is a Professor of Psychology at Queen's University. She received her Ph.D. from York University and is a Registered Psychologist in the Province of Ontario. Her current research examines bullying, victimization, aggression, juvenile delinquency, peer relations, and the development of intervention programs.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Williams, T., Connolly, J., Pepler, D. et al. Peer Victimization, Social Support, and Psychosocial Adjustment of Sexual Minority Adolescents. J Youth Adolescence 34, 471–482 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-7264-x
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-7264-x