Abstract
Good cognitive abilities (CA) enable autonomy, improve social inclusion and act preventively. Regular physical activity (PA) reduces the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and, at the same time, it reduces the decline of CA and stimulates neurogenesis. So PA in connection with cognitive training, nutrition and social interaction has a positive effect on general CA and the central nervous system, the central executor, memory and attention, and reduces the likelihood of developing dementia. Our objective was to examine which sort and intensity of PA is preferred. We did a review, restricted only to human studies, of transparent scientific articles and sample surveys carried out and published in the period between 2001 and 2016 based on the keywords: age, aging, physical activity, physical abilities, cognitive abilities, memory and Alzheimer’s disease. According to results CA and PA interact, as an increasing PA of only 10% reduces the risk of dementia and AD significantly. However, there is a question of appropriate intensity of exercise. Low-intensity aerobic exercise has a positive effect on the visual spatial perception and attention, whereas moderate PA has a positive impact on general CA, working memory and attention, verbal memory and attention and vice versa. While the majority of experts recommends vigorous or moderate exercise, many of them warn that higher intensity requires more attention to PA and less to cognitive processes, particularly in terms of reducing reactions, selective attention and flexibility to tasks. There is also a further question what PA should be like. Although some experts believe that the best combination is aerobic PA and exercises against resistance, it is not entirely clear whether the improvement in CA is a result of cardiac vascular fitness. On the other hand, for most elderly it is more suitable to perform an alternative form (not anaerobic) of PA due to comorbidity and actual fragility. We can conclude that PA has a positive effect on CA, but an appropriate intensity and the type of exercise remain unsolved. For the relevant findings it is absolutely necessary to have an interdisciplinary approach.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbott RD, White LR, Webstre Ross G et al (2004) Walking and dementia in physical capable elderly men. JAMA 292(12):1447–1453
Abdulrahman H, Fletcher PC, Bullmore E et al (2015) Dopamine and memory dedifferentiation in aging. Neuroimage. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.03.031
Albert MS (2008) The neuropsychology of the development of Alzheimer’s disease. In: Craik FIM, Salthouse TA (eds) The handbook of aging and cognition, 3rd edn. Psychology Press, New York, pp 97–133
Alosco ML, Spitznagel MB, Cohen R et al (2014) Decreased physical activity predicts cognitive dysfunction and reduced cerebral blood flow in heart failure. J Neurol Sci 339(1–2):169–175
Baker LD, Frank LL, Foster-Schubert K et al (2010) Effects of aerobic exercise on mild cognitive impairment: a control trial. Arch Neurol 67(1):71–79
Barnes DE, Lautenschlager NT (2013) Physical activity and cognitive aging. In: Yaffe K (ed) Chronical medical disease and cognitive aging. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 171–197
Barnes DE, Yaffe K (2011) The project effect of risk factor reduction on Alzheimer`s disease prevalence. Lancet Neurol 10(9):819–828
Benedict C, Brooks SJ, Kulberg J et al (2013) Association between physical activity and brain health in older adults. Neurobiol Aging 34(1):83–90
Bouchard C, Sarzynski MA, Rice TK et al (2011) Genomic predictors of the maximal O2 Uptake response to standardized exercise training programs. J Appl Physiol 110(5):1160–1170
Busse AL, Gil G, Santarém JM et al (2009) Physical activity and cognition in the elderly. Dement Neuropsychol 3(3):204–208
Cassilhas RC, Viana VA, Grassmann V et al (2007) The impact of resistance exercise on the cognitive function of the elderly. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39(8):1401–1407
Chang Y-K, Etnier JL (2009) Effect of an acute bout of localized resistance on cognitive performance in middle-aged adults: a randomized controlled trial study. Psychol Sport Exerc 10(1):19–24
Chang Y-K, Labban JD, Gapin JI et al (2012) The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta–analysis. Brain Res 1453:87–101
Chang Y-K, Tsai C-H, Huang C-C et al (2014) Effects of acute exercise on cognition in late middle-aged adults: general or specific cognitive improvement? J Sci Med Sport 17(1):51–55
Chodzko-Zalko WJ, Proctor DN, Flatarone Singh M et al (2009) American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and physical activity for older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 41(7):1510–1530
Christensen H, Korten A, Jorm AF et al (1996) Activity levels and cognitive functioning in an elderly community sample. Age Ageing 25:72–80
Coelho FM, Pereira DS, Lustoza LP et al (2012) Physical therapy intervention (PTI) increases plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in non-frail and pre-frail elderly women. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 54(3):415–420
Coelho FG, Gobbi S, Andreatto CAA et al (2013) Physical exercise modulates peripheral levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDFN). A systematic review of experimental studies in the elderly. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 56(1):10–15
Colcombe SJ, Kramer AF, Erickson KI et al (2004) Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101(9):3316–3321
Costarella M, Monteleone L, Steindler R et al (2010) Decline of physical and cognitive conditions in the elderly measured through the functional reach test and the mini-mental state examination. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 50(3):332–337
Coubard O, Duretz S, Lefebvre V et al (2011) Practice of contemporary dance improves cognitive flexibility in aging. Front Aging Neurosci. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2011.00013
Cox K, Lautenschlager N, Flicker L et al (2009) The role of self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of a home-based physical activity program in older adults with memory complains. J Sci Med Sport 12(2):188–189
Cox KL, Flicker L, Almeida OP et al (2013) The FABS trial: a randomized trial of the effects of a 6-month physical activity intervention on adherence and long-term physical activity and self-efficacy in older adults with memory complaints. Prev Med 57(6):824–830
Davranche K, Brisswalter J, Radel R (2015) Where are the limits of the effects of exercise intensity on cognitive control? J Sport Health Sci 4(1):56–63
Doi T, Makizako H, Shimada H et al (2015) Objectively measured physical activity, brain atrophy, and white matter lesion in older adults with mild cognitive impairment. Exp Gerontol 62:1–6
Eggenberger P, Schumacher V, Angst V et al (2015) Does multicomponent physical exercise with simultaneous cognitive training boost cognitive performance in older adults? A 6-month randomized controlled trial with a 1-year follow-up. Clin Interv Aging. doi:10.2147/CIA.S87732
Eggermont L, Swaab D, Luiten P et al (2006) Exercise, cognition and Alzheimer disease: more is not necessarily better. Neurosci Behav Rev 30(4):562–575
Erickson KI, Prakash RS, Voss MW et al (2010) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is associated with age-related decline in hippocampal volume. J Neurosci 30(15):5368–5375
Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS et al (2011) Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108(7):3017–3022
Erickson KI, Weinstein AM, Lopez OL (2012) Physical activity, brain plasticity, and Alzheimer`s disease. Arch Med Res 43(89):615–621
Erickson KI, Leckie RL, Weinstein AM (2014) Physical activity, fitness, and gray matter volume. Neurobiol Aging 35(2):20–28
Etnier JL, Nowell PM, Landers DM et al (2006) A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Res Rev 52:119–130
Failla MD, Conley YP, Wagner AK (2015) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDFN) in traumatic brain injury-related mortality: Interrelationships between genetics and acute systemic and central nervous system BDFN profiles. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 30(1):83–90
Flöel A, Ruscheweyh R, Krüger K et al (2010) Physical activity and memory functions: are neutrophins and cerebral gray matter volume the missing ling? Neuroimage 49(3):2563–2576
Flynn MG, McFarlin BK, Phillips MD et al (2003) Toll-like receptor 4 and CD14 mRNA expression are lower in resistive exercise-trained elderly women. J Appl Physiol 95:1833–1842
Fong TG, Gleason LJ, Wong B et al (2015) Cognitive and physical demands of activities of daily living in older adults: validation of expert panel ratings. PM & R 1934–1482(15):50–57
Fratiglioni L, Paillard-Borg S, Winblad B (2004) An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia. Lancet Neurol 3(6):343–353
Gates NJ, Fiatarone Singh M, Sachdev PS et al (2013) The effect of exercise training on cognitive function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 21(1):1086–1097
Hackney ME, Byers T, Butler G et al (2015) Adapted Tango improves mobility, motor-cognitive function, and gait but not cognition in older adults in independent living. J Am Geriatr Soc 63:2105–2113. doi:10.1111/jgs.13650
Hötting K, Röder B (2013) Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition. Neurosci Behav Rev 37(9):2243–2257
Jay TM (2003) Dopamine: a potential substrate for synaptic plasticity and memory mechanisms. Prog Neurobiol 69(6):375–390
Jiménez-Pavón D, Romeo J, Cervantez-Borunda M et al (2011) Effects on a running bout in the heat on cognitive performance. J Exerc Fit 9(1):58–64
Kaliman P, Parrizas M, Lalanza JF et al (2011) Neurophysiological and epigenetic effect of physical exercise on aging process. Ageing Res Rev 10:475–486
Karch CM, Goate AM (2015) Alzheimer’s disease risk genes and mechanisms of disease pathogenesis. Biol Psychiatry 77:43–51
Kelly ME, Loudhrey D, Lawlor BA et al (2014) The impact of exercise on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Res Rev 16:12–31
Kemoun G, Thibaud M, Roumagne N et al (2010) Effects of a physical training program on cognitive function and walking efficiency in elderly persons with dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 29(2):109–114
Kennedy KM, Erickson KI, Rodrigue KM et al (2009) Age-related differences in regional brain volumes: a comparison of optimized voxel-based morphometry to manual volumentry. Neurobiol Ageing 30(10):1657–1676
Kim SH, Kim M, Ahn YB et al (2011) Effect of dance exercise on cognitive function in elderly patients with metabolic syndrome: a pilot study. J Sports Sci Med 10(4):671–678
Kisner C, Colby LA (2007) Therapeutic exercise. Foundations and techniques. F. A. Davis Company, Philadelphia
Kozlovskiy S, Vartanov A, Pyasik M et al (2012) Working memory and N-acetylaspartate level in hippocampus, parietal cortex and subventricular zone. Int J Psychol 47(1):584
Larson EB, Wang L, Bowen JD et al (2006) Exercise is associated with reduced risk for incident dementia among persons 65 years of age and older. Ann Intern Med 144(2):73–81
Lautenschlager NT, Cox KL, Flicker L et al (2008) Effect of physical activity on cognitive function in older adults at risk for Alzheimer Disease. Jama 300(9):1027–1038
Lawlor DA, Hanratty B (2001) The effect of physical activity advice given in routine primary care consultations: a systematic review. J Public Health 23(3):219–226
Loprinzi PD, Herod SM, Cardinal BJ et al (2013) Physical activity and the brain: a review of this dynamic, bi-directional relationship. Brain Res 95(104):96–104
Makizako H, Liu-Ambroze T, Shimada H et al (2015) Moderate-intensity physical activity, hippocampal volume and memory in older, adults with mild cognitive impairment. Physiotherapy 101(1):941
Mc Morris T, Hale BJ, Corbett J et al (2015) Does acute exercise affect the performance of whole-body, psychomotor skills in an inverted-U fashion? A meta-analytic investigation. Physiol Behav 141:180–189
McCrory P (2007) Cheap solution for big problems? Br J Sports Med 41(9):545
McDaniel MA, Einstein GO, Jacoby LL (2008) New consideration in aging and memory. The glass may be half full. In: Craik FIM, Salthouse TA (eds) The handbook of aging and cognition, 3rd edn. Psychology Press, New York, pp 251–311
Mcgue M (2008) Genetics of cognitive aging. In: Craik FIM, Salthouse TA (eds) The handbook of aging and cognition, 3rd edn. Psychology Press, New York, pp 55–97
Merom D, Grunseit A, Eramudugolla R et al (2016) Cognitive benefits of social dancing and walking in old age: the dancing mind randomized controlled trial. Front Aging Neurosci. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2016.00026
Mohorko N (2014). Kako s prehrano in gibanje vplivamo na nastajanje novih celic v možganih. http://www.sinapsa.org/eSinapsa/clanki/108/Kako%20lahko%20s%20prehrano%20in%20gibanjem%20vplivamo%20na%20nastajanje%20novih%20celic%20v%20mo%C5%BEganih? Accessed Dec 12, 2014
Nakajima K, Takeoka M, Mori M et al (2010) Exercise effects on methylation of ASC gene. Int J Sports Med 31:671–675
Orrow G, Kinmonth A-L, Sanderson S et al (2012) Effectiveness of physical activity promotion based in primary care: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMJ 344:1136–1189
Ouwehand C, de Ridder DT, Bensing JM (2007) A review of successful aging models: proposing proactive coping as an important additional strategy. Clin Psychol Rev 27(8):873–884
Pareja-Galeano H, Alis R, Sanchis-Gomar F et al (2015) Methodological considerations to determine the effect of exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels. Clin Biochem 48(3):162–166
Perry VH, Nicoll JA, Holmec C (2010) Microglia in neurodegenrative disease. Nat Rev Neurol. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2010.17
Piepmeier AT, Etnier JL (2015) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDFN) as a potential mechanism of the effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance. J Sport Health Sci 4(1):14–23
Poedewils LJ, Gualler E, Kuller LH et al (2005) Physical activity, APOE genotype, and dementia risk: findings from the Cardiovascular Health Cognition Study. Am J Epidemiol 161(7):639–651
Rossi AL, Pereira VS, Driuso P et al (2013) Profile of the elderly in physical therapy and its relation to functional disability. Braz J Phys Ther 17(1):77–85
Rovio S, Kareholt I, Helkala EL et al (2005) Leisure-time physical activity at midlife and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet Neurol 4:705–711
Ruiz JR, Castro-Piñero J, Artero EG et al (2009) Predictive validity of health-related fitness in youth: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med 43(12):909–923
Scherder AJA, van Paasschen J, Deijen J et al (2005) Physical activity and executive functions in the elderly with mild cognitive impairment. Aging Ment Health 9(3):272–280
Schiaffino S, Reggiani C (2011) Fiber types in mammalian skeletal muscles. Physiol Rev 91(4):1447–1531
Sergi G, Sarti S, Mosele M et al (2011) Changes in healthy elderly women`s physical performance: a 3-year follow up. Exp Gerontol 46(11):929–933
Smith PJ, Potter GG, McLaren ME et al (2013) Impact of aerobic exercise on neurobehavioral outcomes. Ment Health Phys Act 6(3):139–153
Vaughan S, Morris N, Shum D et al (2012) Study protocol: a randomized controlled trial of the effects of a multi-modal exercise program on cognition and physical functioning in older woman. BMC Geriatr 12(60):2–11
Vidoni ED, Johnson DK, Morris JK et al (2015) Dose-response of aerobic exercise on cognition: a community-based, pilot randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131647
Volčanšek Š, Pfeifer M (2014) Ugodni učinki telesne dejavnosti na presnovo. Zdravniški vestnik 83(9):603–615
Voss MW, Viva C, Kramer AF et al (2013) Bridging animal and human models of exercises-induced brain plasticity, trends in cognitive science. Trends Cognit Sci 17(10):525–544
Vrdoljak D, Bergman Marković B, Puljak L et al (2014) Lifestyle intervention in general practice for physical activity, smoking, alcohol consumption and diet in elderly: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 58(1):160–169
Wang JY, Zhou DH, Jl Li et al (2006) Leisure activity and risk of cognitive impairment: the Chongqing aging study. Neurology 66(6):911–913
Weuve J, Kang JH, Manson JE et al (2004) Physical activity, including walking, and cognitive function in older women. JAMA 292(12):1454–1461
Williams K, Kemper S (2010) Exploring interventions to reduce cognitive decline in aging. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv 48(5):42–51
Železnik D (2010) Obravnava pacientov s kroničnimi obolenji z vidika etike. In: Kavaš E (ed) Medicinske sestre zagotavljamo varnost in uvajamo novosti pri obravnavanju pacientov s kroničnimi obolenji. Strokovno društvo medicinskih sester, babic in zdravstvenih tehnikov Pomurja, Murska Sobota, pp 17–23
Zhang FF, Cardarelli R, Carroll J et al (2011) Physical Activity and global genomic, DNA methylation in a cancer—free population. Epigenetics 6(3):263–269
Zuccaro SM, Steindler R, Scena S et al (2012) Changes of psychical and physical conditions in the elderly after a four-year follow-up. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 54(1):72–77
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Koščak Tivadar, B. Physical activity improves cognition: possible explanations. Biogerontology 18, 477–483 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10522-017-9708-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10522-017-9708-6