Domain | Variable | Females | Males | ||||||||
Mean | Bivariate | Multivariate model 4 | Mean | Bivariate | Multivariate model 4 | ||||||
CES-D10 | Estimate (95% CI) | P value | Estimate (95% CI) | P value | CES-D10 | Estimate (95% CI) | P value | Estimate (95% CI) | P value | ||
Demographic | Age in years | ||||||||||
14 | 5.77 | Reference category | Reference category | 5.73 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
15 | 6.12 | 0.16 (−0.67 to 1.00) | 0.699 | 0.34 (−0.45 to 1.13) | 0.401 | 6.66 | 0.92 (0.10 to 1.74) | 0.028 | 0.85 (0.05 to 1.64) | 0.037 | |
16 | 6.58 | 0.63 (−0.26 to 1.52) | 0.163 | 0.57 (−0.27 to 1.41) | 0.184 | 6.77 | 1.08 (0.27 to 1.89) | 0.009 | 0.93 (0.14 to 1.73) | 0.022 | |
17 | 7.09 | 1.16 (0.26 to 2.06) | 0.011 | 0.50 (−0.41 to 1.41) | 0.278 | 7.22 | 1.29 (0.50 to 2.09) | 0.001 | 1.21 (0.38 to 2.04) | 0.004 | |
18 | 7.95 | 2.04 (1.00 to 3.09) | <0.001 | 0.98 (−0.15 to 2.11) | 0.089 | 6.77 | 1.07 (0.18 to 1.96) | 0.018 | 0.75 (−0.24 to 1.74) | 0.138 | |
19 | 7.63 | 1.82 (0.72 to 2.91) | 0.001 | 0.39 (−0.85 to 1.62) | 0.539 | 7.88 | 1.94 (0.95 to 2.92) | <0.001 | 1.72 (0.62 to 2.81) | 0.002 | |
Five or more household members | |||||||||||
No | 6.21 | Reference category | Reference category | 6.67 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
Yes | 6.94 | 0.63 (0.05 to 1.21) | 0.033 | 0.62 (0.06 to 1.18) | 0.029 | 6.87 | −0.10 (−0.60 to 0.41) | 0.702 | −0.10 (−0.60 to 0.41) | 0.703 | |
Female-headed household | |||||||||||
No | 6.39 | Reference category | Reference category | 6.99 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
Yes | 6.73 | 0.26 (−0.35 to 0.87) | 0.401 | 0.30 (−0.28 to 0.89) | 0.305 | 6.66 | −0.18 (−0.71 to 0.35) | 0.514 | −0.02 (−0.55 to 0.51) | 0.933 | |
Region* | |||||||||||
Mbeya | 6.90 | Reference category | – | 5.80 | Reference category | – | |||||
Iringa | 6.35 | −0.60 (−1.32 to 0.13) | 0.106 | – | 7.67 | 1.68 (0.79 to 2.57) | <0.001 | – | |||
Economic | Wealth level of household | ||||||||||
Richest | 6.36 | Reference category | Reference category | 6.70 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
Middle | 6.79 | 0.54 (−0.17 to 1.26) | 0.137 | 0.44 (−0.23 to 1.11) | 0.193 | 6.76 | 0.24 (−0.43 to 0.91) | 0.477 | 0.39 (−0.26 to 1.04) | 0.239 | |
Poorest | 6.69 | 0.26 (−0.52 to 1.03) | 0.517 | 0.27 (−0.46 to 1.01) | 0.464 | 6.84 | 0.37 (−0.35 to 1.08) | 0.311 | 0.42 (−0.29 to 1.12) | 0.245 | |
Number of economic shocks (past year) | |||||||||||
0 | 6.65 | Reference category | Reference category | 6.50 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
1 | 6.54 | −0.16 (−0.93 to 0.62) | 0.693 | −0.36 (−1.13 to 0.40) | 0.353 | 6.71 | 0.17 (−0.53 to 0.86) | 0.643 | 0.45 (−0.25 to 1.15) | 0.209 | |
2 | 5.69 | −1.07 (−1.92 to −0.23) | 0.013 | −1.39 (-2.30 to −0.47) | 0.003 | 6.67 | 0.40 (−0.34 to 1.15) | 0.288 | 0.57 (−0.27 to 1.41) | 0.181 | |
3 | 6.49 | −0.32 (−1.32 to 0.68) | 0.528 | −0.46 (−1.61 to 0.69) | 0.430 | 6.01 | −0.02 (−0.90 to 0.86) | 0.958 | 0.59 (−0.46 to 1.63) | 0.271 | |
4 | 5.49 | −1.45 (-2.70 to −0.21) | 0.022 | −1.24 (-2.62 to 0.14) | 0.079 | 7.79 | 1.37 (0.30 to 2.44) | 0.012 | 1.89 (0.69 to 3.09) | 0.002 | |
5+ | 9.70 | 2.70 (1.57 to 3.82) | <0.001 | 1.96 (0.63 to 3.29) | 0.004 | 8.50 | 2.10 (1.07 to 3.14) | <0.001 | 2.43 (1.19 to 3.67) | <0.001 | |
Youth owns a cell phone | |||||||||||
No | 6.35 | Reference category | Reference category | 6.77 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
Yes | 7.88 | 1.54 (0.79 to 2.29) | <0.001 | −0.44 (−1.01 to 0.12) | 0.123 | 6.77 | 0.15 (−0.44 to 0.75) | 0.612 | −0.61 (−1.32 to 0.10) | 0.094 | |
Neighbourhood/ environmental | Access to services level | ||||||||||
High | 6.41 | Reference category | Reference category | 6.93 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
Middle | 6.96 | 0.45 (−0.41 to 1.31) | 0.303 | 0.24 (−0.54 to 1.03) | 0.543 | 6.72 | −0.56 (−1.64 to 0.51) | 0.305 | −0.32 (−1.34 to 0.70) | 0.533 | |
Low | 6.48 | 0.06 (−0.83 to 0.94) | 0.902 | −0.18 (−1.00 to 0.63) | 0.659 | 6.65 | 0.18 (−0.92 to 1.27) | 0.751 | 0.22 (−0.82 to 1.26) | 0.683 | |
Drought/flood (past year) | |||||||||||
No | 6.40 | Reference category | Reference category | 6.31 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
Yes | 7.09 | 0.57 (−0.06 to 1.20) | 0.075 | 0.42 (−0.19 to 1.02) | 0.180 | 7.68 | 1.15 (0.62 to 1.69) | <0.001 | 1.03 (0.51 to 1.56) | <0.001 | |
Livestock/crop disease (past year) | |||||||||||
No | 6.48 | Reference category | Reference category | 6.70 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
Yes | 6.81 | 0.11 (−0.48 to 0.71) | 0.714 | −0.12 (−0.89 to 0.66) | 0.762 | 6.87 | 0.38 (−0.12 to 0.89) | 0.139 | −0.60 (−1.30 to 0.09) | 0.088 | |
Social and cultural | Education/employment | ||||||||||
Attending school/training | 5.94 | Reference category | Reference category | 6.21 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
Engaged in paid work | 7.44 | 1.60 (0.35 to 2.84) | 0.012 | 0.26 (−1.00 to 1.53) | 0.683 | 7.17 | 1.21 (0.50 to 1.93) | 0.001 | 0.63 (−0.15 to 1.40) | 0.113 | |
School & paid work | 6.15 | 0.29 (−1.60 to 2.19) | 0.761 | 0.24 (−1.55 to 2.04) | 0.791 | 7.66 | 1.70 (0.47 to 2.93) | 0.007 | 1.41 (0.22 to 2.61) | 0.021 | |
Neither | 7.67 | 1.78 (1.17 to 2.40) | <0.001 | 0.51 (−0.23 to 1.25) | 0.178 | 7.20 | 1.08 (0.50 to 1.66) | <0.001 | 0.66 (0.02 to 1.31) | 0.043 | |
Has a partner | |||||||||||
No | 5.91 | Reference category | Reference category | 6.65 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
Yes | 8.56 | 2.79 (2.15 to 3.43) | <0.001 | 2.23 (1.58 to 2.88) | <0.001 | 7.84 | 1.30 (0.48 to 2.13) | 0.002 | 1.07 (0.23 to 1.90) | 0.012 | |
Social support | |||||||||||
High | 5.34 | Reference category | Reference category | 5.90 | Reference category | Reference category | |||||
Moderate | 6.32 | 1.17 (0.45 to 1.89) | 0.002 | 0.86 (0.17 to 1.56) | 0.015 | 7.14 | 1.42 (0.83 to 2.00) | <0.001 | 1.31 (0.74 to 1.88) | <0.001 | |
Low | 7.96 | 2.53 (1.83 to 3.23) | <0.001 | 2.20 (1.52 to 2.88) | <0.001 | 7.98 | 2.22 (1.59 to 2.86) | <0.001 | 2.11 (1.47 to 2.74) | <0.001 | |
Attends weekly religious ceremony† | |||||||||||
No | 6.90 | Reference category | – | 6.63 | Reference category | – | |||||
Yes | 6.40 | −0.51 (−1.14 to 0.12) | 0.116 | – | 6.92 | 0.17 (−0.37 to 0.70) | 0.542 | – | |||
Number of adverse childhood experiences† | |||||||||||
0–1 | 6.35 | Reference category | – | 7.05 | Reference category | – | |||||
2 | 6.49 | 0.26 (−0.71 to 1.23) | 0.596 | – | 6.53 | −0.40 (−1.17 to 0.38) | 0.318 | – | |||
3 | 6.42 | 0.10 (−0.95 to 1.15) | 0.850 | – | 6.66 | −0.04 (−0.88 to 0.80) | 0.925 | – | |||
4 | 6.58 | 0.28 (−0.84 to 1.40) | 0.625 | – | 6.93 | 0.18 (−0.78 to 1.13) | 0.716 | – | |||
5+ | 7.28 | 1.17 (0.05 to 2.28) | 0.040 | – | 6.64 | 0.01 (−0.90 to 0.92) | 0.982 | – | |||
Random effects | |||||||||||
Village variance (SE) | – | 1.02 (0.438) | – | 3.63 (0.744) | |||||||
Intraclass correlation coefficient % | – | 4.9 | – | 16.8 |
Reported CES-D10 means are unadjusted. All regressions adjust for stratification variables. Multivariate model 4 adjusts for all domains within a single regression. Models 1–3, which adjust for domains separately, are shown in the appendix. Linear mixed models were used to account for clustering of CES-D10 within and between villages (random effects are not shown for bivariate regressions).
*All other bivariate and multivariate regressions adjust for Region as part of sample stratification; therefore estimates are not shown elsewhere.
†Total N differs due to attrition. Data come from wave 2 for these indicators.
CES-D10, 10-item Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale.