Table 5

Bivariate and multivariate associations of potential determinants and depressive symptoms, by sex

DomainVariableFemalesMales
MeanBivariateMultivariate model 4MeanBivariateMultivariate model 4
CES-D10Estimate (95% CI)P valueEstimate (95% CI)P valueCES-D10Estimate (95% CI)P valueEstimate (95% CI)P value
DemographicAge in years
 145.77Reference categoryReference category5.73Reference categoryReference category
 156.120.16 (−0.67 to 1.00)0.6990.34 (−0.45 to 1.13)0.4016.660.92 (0.10 to 1.74)0.0280.85 (0.05 to 1.64)0.037
 166.580.63 (−0.26 to 1.52)0.1630.57 (−0.27 to 1.41)0.1846.771.08 (0.27 to 1.89)0.0090.93 (0.14 to 1.73)0.022
 177.091.16 (0.26 to 2.06)0.0110.50 (−0.41 to 1.41)0.2787.221.29 (0.50 to 2.09)0.0011.21 (0.38 to 2.04)0.004
 187.952.04 (1.00 to 3.09)<0.0010.98 (−0.15 to 2.11)0.0896.771.07 (0.18 to 1.96)0.0180.75 (−0.24 to 1.74)0.138
 197.631.82 (0.72 to 2.91)0.0010.39 (−0.85 to 1.62)0.5397.881.94 (0.95 to 2.92)<0.0011.72 (0.62 to 2.81)0.002
Five or more household members
 No6.21Reference categoryReference category6.67Reference categoryReference category
 Yes6.940.63 (0.05 to 1.21)0.0330.62 (0.06 to 1.18)0.0296.87−0.10 (−0.60 to 0.41)0.702−0.10 (−0.60 to 0.41)0.703
Female-headed household
 No6.39Reference categoryReference category6.99Reference categoryReference category
 Yes6.730.26 (−0.35 to 0.87)0.4010.30 (−0.28 to 0.89)0.3056.66−0.18 (−0.71 to 0.35)0.514−0.02 (−0.55 to 0.51)0.933
Region*
 Mbeya6.90Reference category–5.80Reference category–
 Iringa6.35−0.60 (−1.32 to 0.13)0.106–7.671.68 (0.79 to 2.57)<0.001–
EconomicWealth level of household
 Richest6.36Reference categoryReference category6.70Reference categoryReference category
 Middle6.790.54 (−0.17 to 1.26)0.1370.44 (−0.23 to 1.11)0.1936.760.24 (−0.43 to 0.91)0.4770.39 (−0.26 to 1.04)0.239
 Poorest6.690.26 (−0.52 to 1.03)0.5170.27 (−0.46 to 1.01)0.4646.840.37 (−0.35 to 1.08)0.3110.42 (−0.29 to 1.12)0.245
Number of economic shocks (past year)
 06.65Reference categoryReference category6.50Reference categoryReference category
 16.54−0.16 (−0.93 to 0.62)0.693−0.36 (−1.13 to 0.40)0.3536.710.17 (−0.53 to 0.86)0.6430.45 (−0.25 to 1.15)0.209
 25.69−1.07 (−1.92 to −0.23)0.013−1.39 (-2.30 to −0.47)0.0036.670.40 (−0.34 to 1.15)0.2880.57 (−0.27 to 1.41)0.181
 36.49−0.32 (−1.32 to 0.68)0.528−0.46 (−1.61 to 0.69)0.4306.01−0.02 (−0.90 to 0.86)0.9580.59 (−0.46 to 1.63)0.271
 45.49−1.45 (-2.70 to −0.21)0.022−1.24 (-2.62 to 0.14)0.0797.791.37 (0.30 to 2.44)0.0121.89 (0.69 to 3.09)0.002
 5+9.702.70 (1.57 to 3.82)<0.0011.96 (0.63 to 3.29)0.0048.502.10 (1.07 to 3.14)<0.0012.43 (1.19 to 3.67)<0.001
Youth owns a cell phone
 No6.35Reference categoryReference category6.77Reference categoryReference category
 Yes7.881.54 (0.79 to 2.29)<0.001−0.44 (−1.01 to 0.12)0.1236.770.15 (−0.44 to 0.75)0.612−0.61 (−1.32 to 0.10)0.094
Neighbourhood/ environmentalAccess to services level
 High6.41Reference categoryReference category6.93Reference categoryReference category
 Middle6.960.45 (−0.41 to 1.31)0.3030.24 (−0.54 to 1.03)0.5436.72−0.56 (−1.64 to 0.51)0.305−0.32 (−1.34 to 0.70)0.533
 Low6.480.06 (−0.83 to 0.94)0.902−0.18 (−1.00 to 0.63)0.6596.650.18 (−0.92 to 1.27)0.7510.22 (−0.82 to 1.26)0.683
Drought/flood (past year)
 No6.40Reference categoryReference category6.31Reference categoryReference category
 Yes7.090.57 (−0.06 to 1.20)0.0750.42 (−0.19 to 1.02)0.1807.681.15 (0.62 to 1.69)<0.0011.03 (0.51 to 1.56)<0.001
Livestock/crop disease (past year)
 No6.48Reference categoryReference category6.70Reference categoryReference category
 Yes6.810.11 (−0.48 to 0.71)0.714−0.12 (−0.89 to 0.66)0.7626.870.38 (−0.12 to 0.89)0.139−0.60 (−1.30 to 0.09)0.088
Social and culturalEducation/employment
 Attending school/training5.94Reference categoryReference category6.21Reference categoryReference category
 Engaged in paid work7.441.60 (0.35 to 2.84)0.0120.26 (−1.00 to 1.53)0.6837.171.21 (0.50 to 1.93)0.0010.63 (−0.15 to 1.40)0.113
 School & paid work6.150.29 (−1.60 to 2.19)0.7610.24 (−1.55 to 2.04)0.7917.661.70 (0.47 to 2.93)0.0071.41 (0.22 to 2.61)0.021
 Neither7.671.78 (1.17 to 2.40)<0.0010.51 (−0.23 to 1.25)0.1787.201.08 (0.50 to 1.66)<0.0010.66 (0.02 to 1.31)0.043
Has a partner
 No5.91Reference categoryReference category6.65Reference categoryReference category
 Yes8.562.79 (2.15 to 3.43)<0.0012.23 (1.58 to 2.88)<0.0017.841.30 (0.48 to 2.13)0.0021.07 (0.23 to 1.90)0.012
Social support
 High5.34Reference categoryReference category5.90Reference categoryReference category
 Moderate6.321.17 (0.45 to 1.89)0.0020.86 (0.17 to 1.56)0.0157.141.42 (0.83 to 2.00)<0.0011.31 (0.74 to 1.88)<0.001
 Low7.962.53 (1.83 to 3.23)<0.0012.20 (1.52 to 2.88)<0.0017.982.22 (1.59 to 2.86)<0.0012.11 (1.47 to 2.74)<0.001
Attends weekly religious ceremony†
 No6.90Reference category–6.63Reference category–
 Yes6.40−0.51 (−1.14 to 0.12)0.116–6.920.17 (−0.37 to 0.70)0.542–
Number of adverse childhood experiences†
 0–16.35Reference category–7.05Reference category–
 26.490.26 (−0.71 to 1.23)0.596–6.53−0.40 (−1.17 to 0.38)0.318–
 36.420.10 (−0.95 to 1.15)0.850–6.66−0.04 (−0.88 to 0.80)0.925–
 46.580.28 (−0.84 to 1.40)0.625–6.930.18 (−0.78 to 1.13)0.716–
 5+7.281.17 (0.05 to 2.28)0.040–6.640.01 (−0.90 to 0.92)0.982–
Random effects
 Village variance (SE)–1.02 (0.438)–3.63 (0.744)
 Intraclass correlation coefficient %–4.9–16.8

  • Reported CES-D10 means are unadjusted. All regressions adjust for stratification variables. Multivariate model 4 adjusts for all domains within a single regression. Models 1–3, which adjust for domains separately, are shown in the appendix. Linear mixed models were used to account for clustering of CES-D10 within and between villages (random effects are not shown for bivariate regressions).

  • *All other bivariate and multivariate regressions adjust for Region as part of sample stratification; therefore estimates are not shown elsewhere.

  • †Total N differs due to attrition. Data come from wave 2 for these indicators.

  • CES-D10, 10-item Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale.