Associations between maternal and paternal early-life characteristics and children’s adult SEP measured by Hollingshead Index, the Uppsala Multi-generational Birth Cohort, Sweden
| Parents’ early-life characteristics* | Mothers (n=3192) | Fathers (n=3126) | ||||
| Model 1† | Model 2‡ | Model 3§ | Model 1† | Model 2‡ | Model 3§ | |
| ß(95% CI) | ß(95% CI) | ß(95% CI) | ß(95% CI) | ß(95% CI) | ß(95% CI) | |
| Family SEP | ||||||
| High | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Medium | −6.9
(–12.9 to −0.9) | −6.8
(–12.8 to −0.8) | −0.9 (−6.1 to 4.3) | −6.0 (−12.2 to 0.2) | −6.0 (−12.2 to 0.2) | −3.7 (−1.1 to 8.5) |
| Low | −10.0
(–16.0 to −4.1) | −9.0
(–15.0 to −2.9) | −2.2 (−7.5 to 3.0) | −8.5
(–14.6 to −2.3) | −7.9
(–14.1 to −1.7) | −2.7 (−2.0 to 7.5) |
| Mother’s marital status | ||||||
| Married | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Unmarried | −4.9
(−7.7 to −2.1) | −3.7
(−6.6 to −0.8) | −2.8
(−5.4 to −0.1) | −3.3
(−6.2 to −0.4) | −2.1 (−5.1 to 0.9) | 1.9 (−4.6 to 0.9) |
| Mother’s parity | ||||||
| 1 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| 2 | −1.3 (−1.6 to 4.2) | −0.0 (−3.1 to 3.0) | 2.2 (−0.6 to 5.0) | −0.7 (−3.5 to 2.0) | −2.3 (−5.2 to 0.5) | −1.6 (−4.2 to 1.0) |
| ≥3 | −1.1 (−3.6 to 1.4) | −3.7
(−6.7 to −0.8) | −0.7 (−3.4 to 2.1) | −2.2 (−4.6 to 0.2) | −4.7
(−7.6 to −1.7) | −1.7 (−4.5 to 1.0) |
| Birth weight (standardised) | ||||||
| SGA | −3.2 (−6.9 to 0.4) | −3.9
(−7.8 to 0.0) | −2.6 (−6.0 to 0.9) | −0.4 (−4.4 to 3.5) | −0.0 (−3.8 to 3.8) | 0.1 (−2.4 to 4.3) |
| Normal | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| LGA | −0.85 (−4.4 to 2.7) | −0.7 (−4.3 to 2.8) | −1.2 (−4.6 to 2.2) | 1.3 (−2.0 to 4.6) | 1.6 (−1.7 to 5.0) | 1.1 (−2.0 to 4.3) |
| Length of gestation | ||||||
| Preterm (≤36 weeks) | −1.1 (−5.0 to 2.8) | −0.8 (−4.9 to 3.2) | −1.2 (−4.8 to 2.4) | −4.3
(−7.9 to −0.7) | −3.8
(−7.5 to −0.1) | −4.4
(−7.7 to −1.2) |
| Term (37–41 weeks) | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Post-term (≥42 weeks) | −1.1 (−4.5 to 2.2) | −0.7 (−4.0 to 2.5) | 1.0 (−2.0 to 4.0) | −1.2 (−4.6 to 2.1) | −0.9 (−4.2 to 2.3) | −0.1 (−3.2 to 3.0) |
| Multiplicity of birth | ||||||
| Singleton | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Twin/triplet | −2.8 (−9.6 to 4.0) | −3.1 (−10.2 to 4.0) | −1.2 (−7.2 to 4.9) | −6.3 (−15.6 to 2.9) | −6.90 (−14.9 to 3.0) | −5.2 (−13.2 to 2.8) |
| Mother’s age (years) at birth | ||||||
| <20 | −0.1 (−4.5 to 4.4) | 2.9 (−1.8 to 7.7) | 3.2 (−1.3 to 7.8) | −5.4
(–10.7 to −0.0) | −3.6 (−9.4 to 2.1) | −2.4 (−7.8 to 3.0) |
| 20–24 | −1.5 (−4.4 to 1.5) | −0.2 (−3.2 to 2.8) | 0.7 (−2.0 to 3.4) | −2.6 (−5.3 to 0.1) | −1.9 (−4.6 to 0.9) | −1.8 (−4.4 to 0.7) |
| 25–29 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | |
| 30–34 | 1.5 (−1.7 to 4.7) | 1.1 (−2.1 to 4.2) | 1.6 (−1.2 to 4.5) | −0.2 (−3.1 to 2.7) | −0.5 (−3.4 to 2.3) | −0.7 (−3.3 to 1.8) |
| ≥35 | 0.4 (−2.7 to 3.4) | −0.2 (−3.3 to 2.9) | 0.9 (−1.8 to 3.6) | −2.5 (−5.5 to 0.6) | −3.1 (−6.2 to 0.0) | −2.3 (−5.1 to 0.4) |
Bold typeface indicates statistical significance (p<0.05).
*Each exposure represents a separate linear regression model.
†Model 1 adjusted for mother’s/father’s respective year of birth and child’s year of birth.
‡Model 2 additionally adjusted for different sets of confounders for different exposures. The associations with parent’s family SEP and mother’s marital status were estimated by adjusting for each other. The association with mother’s parity was estimated by adjusting for mother’s/father’s respective early-life family SEP, multiplicity of birth, mother’s marital status and mother’s age at birth. The associations with parental birth weight, length of gestation and multiplicity of births were estimated by adjusting for all exposures. The association with parent’s mother’s age at birth was adjusted for the parent’s early-life family SEP and mother’s marital status.
§Model 3 further adjusted for mother’s/father’s respective education, occupation and income.
ß, beta coefficient; LGA, large-for-gestational age; Ref., reference group; SEP, socioeconomic position; SGA, small-for-gestational age.