Proposed solutions to participation dilemmas
| Solution | Explanation | Examples |
| A. Selective incentives | Tangible rewards for participants, or penalties for non-participants | Stipends for volunteers; free food, training or entertainment for group members; education on ’hook topics' that are unrelated to the primary purpose of a self-help group to attract participants. |
| B. Social incentives | Incentives generated by social interaction with other community members | Opportunities for building individual social capital, displays of approval of participation or disapproval of non-participation by community members. |
| C. Outsize stakes, intermediate goals, interdependency | Situations in which the incentive structure does not produce a participation dilemma | A wealthy patron willing to build a clean water supply for the whole village; a health and sanitation club satisfied with raising awareness rather than changing behaviours; a troupe of activist street theatre performers who depend on each other for success. |
| D. Intrinsic benefits | Psychological or moral rewards for participation or penalties for non-participation | The benefits of being able to express outrage, gain a sense of agency, feel part of a greater cause, feel less lonely, express one’s identity, show solidarity or perform one’s moral duty. |
| E. Critical mass | An initial group of highly motivated participants sets off a chain reaction that rapidly drives further participation up | A small, initial group of street protesters against police inaction on violence against women successfully convince authorities to take action on a case of domestic violence, thereby persuading other community members to join future protests. |