Subgroup (prevalence) | Income | Education | Occupation | ||||||
n | OR (95% CI) | I2 (P) | n | OR (95% CI) | I2 (P) | n | OR (95% CI) | I2 (P) | |
Overall | 17 | 1.34 (1.18 to 1.53) | 73.0% (0.050) | 14 | 1.21 (1.11 to 1.32) | 45.2% (0.034) | 7 | 1.09 (0.96 to 1.23) | 26.4% (0.227) |
Geographic area | |||||||||
USA | 9 | 1.55 (1.37 to 1.75) | 47.8% (0.053) | 4 | 1.17 (1.01 to 1.36) | 38.8% (0.179) | 1 | 1.12 (0.82 to 1.52) | – |
Europe | 3 | 1.14 (0.93 to 1.41) | 33.3% (0.223) | 2 | 1.18 (0.74 to 1.88) | 82.0% (0.018) | 2 | 1.12 (0.89 to 1.41) | 55.0% (0.136) |
Asian-Pacific Region | 3 | 1.01 (0.85 to 1.20) | 0.0% (0.516) | 5 | 1.21 (1.09 to 1.33) | 2.6% (0.392) | 2 | 1.27 (0.99 to 1.62) | 0.0% (0.975) |
Latin America | 2 | 1.35 (0.70 to 2.59) | 88.3% (0.003) | – | – | – | 2 | 0.87 (0.69 to 1.09) | 0.0% (0.780) |
Africa | 0 | – | – | 1 | 1.18 (0.46 to 3.03) | – | 0 | – | – |
Country’s income level | |||||||||
High | 12 | 1.49 (1.32 to 1.67) | 50.1% (0.024) | 6 | 1.18 (1.04 to 1.35) | 46.0% (0.099) | 3 | 1.21 (1.06 to 1.38) | 0.0% (0.8490) |
Upper middle | 3 | 1.20 (0.83 to 1.74) | 79.6% (0.007) | 3 | 1.28 (0.90 to 1.82) | 81.3% (0.005) | 3 | 0.91 (0.76 to 1.08) | 0.0% (0.802) |
Lower middle | 2 | 0.98 (0.81 to 1.17) | 0.0% (0.779) | 4 | 1.25 (1.13 to 1.39) | 0.0% (0.695) | 1 | 1.27 (0.92 to 1.76) | – |
Low | 0 | – | – | 1 | 1.18 (0.46 to 3.03) | – | 0 | – | – |
Adjustments for CKD-related risk factors | |||||||||
None | 5 | 1.66 (1.25 to 2.20) | 72.7% (0.005) | 3 | 1.67 (1.34 to 2.06) | 0.0% (0.398) | 1 | 0.83 (0.56 to 1.24) | – |
Health behaviours | 1 | 0.99 (0.76 to 1.30) | – | 1 | 0.93 (0.71 to 1.21) | – | 1 | 0.97 (0.74 to 1.27) | – |
Comorbid conditions | 1 | 1.24 (0.94 to 1.65) | – | 0 | – | – | 1 | 1.23 (1.05 to 1.44) | – |
+Health behaviours | 7 | 1.20 (0.99 to 1.45) | 74.7% (<0.001) | 8 | 1.23 (1.14 to 1.33) | 0.0% (0.630) | 4 | 1.10 (0.93 to 1.30) | 14.3% (0.321) |
+Healthcare access | 3 | 1.46 (1.23 to 1.74) | 49.4% (0.139) | 2 | 1.11 (1.03 to 1.20) | 0.0% (0.398) | 0 | – | – |
Study period | |||||||||
2000s | 7 | 1.35 (1.14 to 1.60) | 42.2% (0.109) | 5 | 1.24 (0.97 to 1.57) | 68.3% (0.013) | 4 | 1.13 (0.94 to 1.34) | 3.2% (0.376) |
2010s | 10 | 1.34 (1.11 to 1.62) | 81.6% (<0.001) | 9 | 1.20 (1.10 to 1.30) | 27.4% (0.200) | 3 | 1.05 (0.85 to 1.29) | 60.0% (0.082) |
CKD definitions | |||||||||
MDRD equation | 9 | 1.24 (1.08 to 1.43) | 40.2% (0.099) | 9 | 1.16 (1.09 to 1.25) | 9.9% (0.352) | 3 | 1.21 (1.00 to 1.46) | 0.0% (0.83) |
EPI equation | 7 | 1.40 (1.13 to 1.75) | 83.6% (<0.001) | 4 | 1.23 (0.99 to 1.53) | 55.0% (0.084) | 3 | 1.05 (0.85 to 1.29) | 60.0% (0.082) |
CG/BSA equation | 1 | 1.91 (1.32 to 2.78) | – | 1 | 1.97 (1.37 to 2.83) | – | 1 | 0.83 (0.56 to 1.25) | – |
CG/BSA, Cockcroft-Gault normalised to body surface area equation; CKD, chronic kidney disease; EPI, epidemiology collaboration equation; MDRD, Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study; SES, socioeconomic status.