Coffee consumption | p for trend | ||||
<1 cup/week | 1–6 cups/week | 1–2 cups/day | ≥3 cups/day | ||
Men | |||||
Person-years | 145 683 | 116 260 | 102 867 | 39 378 | |
Total CVD | |||||
N | 822 | 450 | 326 | 83 | |
Age and BMI-adjusted HR | 1 | 0.88 (0.84–0.94) | 0.80 (0.71–0.90) | 0.75 (0.66–0.86) | <0.001 |
Multivariable HR | 1 | 0.71 (0.53–0.96) | 0.84 (0.64–0.99) | 1.17 (0.77–1.76) | 0.065* |
CHD | |||||
N | 160 | 99 | 92 | 25 | |
Age and BMI-adjusted HR | 1 | 0.88 (0.68–1.14) | 1.11 (0.85–1.46) | 1.20 (0.77–1.87) | 0.482 |
Multivariable HR | 1 | 0.85 (0.46–1.58) | 0.92 (0.50–1.66) | 1.29 (0.59–2.84) | 0.906 |
Stroke | |||||
N | 384 | 194 | 127 | 17 | |
Age and BMI-adjusted HR | 1 | 0.73 (0.61–0.87) | 0.61 (0.49–0.76) | 0.34 (0.21–0.57) | <0.001 |
Multivariable HR | 1 | 0.78 (0.50–1.20) | 0.67 (0.47–0.96) | 0.45 (0.17–0.87) | 0.009 |
Women | |||||
Person-years | 239 297 | 164 307 | 166 699 | 36 295 | |
Total CVD | |||||
N | 850 | 307 | 233 | 46 | |
Age and BMI-adjusted HR | 1 | 0.76 (0.66–0.88) | 0.65 (0.55–0.76) | 1.25 (0.91–1.70) | <0.001 |
Multivariable HR | 1 | 0.87 (0.62–1.23) | 0.77 (0.55–0.99) | 2.30 (1.31–4.02) | 0.966 |
CHD | |||||
N | 155 | 73 | 39 | 7 | |
Age and BMI-adjusted HR | 1 | 0.95 (0.69–1.30) | 0.65 (0.44–0.95) | 1.30 (0.60–2.83) | 0.102 |
Multivariable HR | 1 | 0.63 (0.23–1.67) | 0.89 (0.42–1.87) | 0.57 (0.06–4.94) | 0.409 |
Stroke | |||||
N | 374 | 122 | 124 | 20 | |
Age and BMI-adjusted HR | 1 | 0.67 (0.54–0.84) | 0.73 (0.58–0.92) | 1.16 (0.72–1.86) | 0.011 |
Multivariable HR | 1 | 0.87 (0.53–1.44) | 0.68 (0.41–1.03) | 3.17 (1.50–6.69) | 0.967 |
Multivariable HR was adjusted for body mass index (BMI), history of hypertension, history of diabetes, smoking status, alcohol intake, education, walking hours, hours of sports participation, perceived mental stress, multivitamin use, vitamin E supplement use, consumption of total fruits, total vegetable, total beans, total meat, total fish and seaweeds and total daily energy intake.
↵* Non-linear p (cubic spline) <0.001.
CHD, coronary heart disease; CVD, cardiovascular disease.