| Infancy (birth to 18 or 24 months) | Interest in people; shows desire for personal attentionCapable of coordinated interactionInitiates contact with age mates | Formation of attachment bond with adultsInception of “internal working model” of attachment (ie, security or insecurity of attachment emerges) | Expression of basic emotionsDifferential reaction to adult emotionsEmotion regulation; some self-soothing, much assistance by adults | Responds to own name; recognises selfExpresses ownership or possession(Note: these milestones are really more closely allied with self-concept than perceived competence) | Shows distinct dimensions of self-regulation and reactivity |
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| Toddler period (18–24 months through 3 years) | Plays alongside age matesParticipates in group play | “Goal-corrected partnership” in attachment (ie, the beginning of autonomy as well as connectedness) | Expression of more social emotions (eg, guilt, shame, empathy)Begins to comprehend “good” and “bad” feelingsMore independent emotion regulation | Speaks positively of selfDesires autonomyBegins to have some idea of distinct domains of self-competence | Moderate continuity seen in dimensions of temperament, but some change seenRegulatory dimensions become more important due to anterior cortical brain development |
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| Preschool period through kindergarten (3 to 5–6 years) | Beginning peer interaction while managing emotional arousalBeginning of specific friendships and peer statusProsocial behaviours and interactions emerge | Enjoys familiar adultsSeparates easily from parents | Expression of ‘blended” emotionsUnderstands expressions and situations of basic emotionsMore independent emotion regulation | Shows awareness of differentiated physical, social and cognitive abilitiesSpeaks positively of selfAsserts self in socially acceptable ways | Temperament beginning to be differentiated into personality |
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| Grade school | Formation of dyadic friendshipsSolidification of peer statusGeneral diminution of physical aggression | Begins to balance connection to parents and peers | Use of display rulesUnderstands complex emotions (eg, ambivalence, unique perspectives)Begins independently to use cognitive strategies to regulate emotions | Greater differentiation of self-perceptions of physical, social and cognitive abilitiesSocial comparison becomes even more important | Personality traits becoming more differentiated |
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| Early adolescence (12–14 years) | Achieving new and more mature relations with others, both boys and girls, in their age group | Continues balancing connections with parents and peers (in some ways peers now “come out on top”, but parents are still important) | More subtle experience and expression emotionEver more sophisticated understanding of unique emotional perspectivesBroader array of emotion regulatory strategies | Begins a period of heightened self-awarenessAlso begins a period of heightened self-consciousness | Personality traits becoming more differentiatedContinuity from earlier yearsTemperament dimensions of reactivity and regulation remain important |
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| Middle adolescence (15–17 years) | Achieving new and more mature relations with others, both boys and girls, in their age groupAchieving emotional independence from parents and other adults | Moves into even more intimate relationships with friends of the same and opposite sex | Same as above | Achieving a masculine or feminine social roleAccepting one’s physique | Continuity from earlier yearsTemperament dimensions of reactivity and regulation remain important |
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| Late adolescence/early adulthood | Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adultsDesiring and achieving socially responsible behaviourPreparing for marriage, family life, and career | Same as above | Same as above | Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behaviour – developing an ideology and other forms of identify | Continuity from earlier yearsTemperament dimensions of reactivity and regulation remain important |