Characteristics of participants according to daily food consumption costs
| Variables | Quintiles of daily food consumption costs (€/1000 kcal) | |||||||
| 1 (lowest) (n = 3440) | 2 (n = 3439) | 3 (n = 3440) | 4 (n = 3438) | 5 (n = 3440) | p Value* | |||
| Price (€/1000 kcal) | ⩽2.5 | 2.51–2.81 | 2.82–3.16 | 3.17–3.65 | ⩾3.66 | |||
| Men (%) | 48.1 | 44.1 | 40.2 | 37.3 | 32.1 | <0.001 | ||
| Age (years) | 35.0 (11.2) | 36.9 (11.6) | 38.9 (12.0) | 40.1 (12.2) | 42.2 (12.9) | <0.001 | ||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 23.0 (3.3) | 23.4 (3.4) | 23.6 (3.5) | 23.8 (3.5) | 24.2 (3.8) | <0.001 | ||
| Weight (kg) | 67.3 (16.0) | 67.6 (16.3) | 67.5 (16.1) | 68.0 (17.3) | 68.0 (16.9) | 0.26 | ||
| Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 2607 (606) | 2477 (590) | 2383 (580) | 2249 (574) | 2032 (599) | <0.001 | ||
| Energy-density (kcal/g) | 1.3 (0.3) | 1.2 (0.2) | 1.1 (0.2) | 0.96 (0.2) | 0.82 (0.2) | <0.001 | ||
| Snacking (%) | 38.6 | 37.4 | 32.3 | 31.8 | 28.3 | <0.001 | ||
| Sedentary time† (h/day) | 6.0 (2.3) | 5.9 (2.1) | 5.8 (2.0) | 5.7 (2.1) | 5.5 (2.1) | <0.001 | ||
| Physical activity (MET-h/week) | 23.5 (21.3) | 24.0 (21.7) | 24.2 (22.5) | 24.2 (22.0) | 24.9 (22.3) | 0.12 | ||
| Current smokers (%) | 22.1 | 22.9 | 22.1 | 22.6 | 21.3 | <0.001 | ||
| Former smokers (%) | 22.4 | 26.9 | 29.9 | 32.8 | 38.4 | <0.001 | ||
| Total fat intake (% of energy) | 37.9 (6.9) | 37.3 (6.1) | 36.8 (6.2) | 36.0 (6.4) | 34.3 (7.2) | <0.001 | ||
| Monounsaturated fat (% of energy) | 16.1 (4.1) | 15.9 (3.5) | 15.9 (3.5) | 15.6 (3.6) | 14.9 (4.0) | <0.001 | ||
| Saturated fat (% of energy) | 12.9 (3.0) | 12.9 (3.1) | 12.7 (3.1) | 12.2 (3.2) | 11.4 (3.6) | <0.001 | ||
| Polyunsaturated fat (% of energy) | 5.8 (1.9) | 5.4 (1.5) | 5.2 (1.5) | 5.0 (1.3) | 4.7 (1.4) | <0.001 | ||
| Protein (% of energy) | 15.8 (2.5) | 17.2 (2.4) | 18.1 (2.7) | 18.9 (2.8) | 20.8 (3.9) | <0.001 | ||
| Alcohol (% of energy) | 1.5 (2.3) | 1.9 (2.8) | 2.1 (3.0) | 2.4 (3.4) | 2.4 (3.8) | <0.001 | ||
| Carbohydrates (% of energy) | 44.8 (7.1) | 43.6 (6.7) | 43.0 (7.1) | 42.7 (7.5) | 42.5 (8.8) | <0.001 | ||
| Fibre (g/day) | 21.0 (7.6) | 24.3 (8.0) | 26.9 (8.8) | 29.8 (9.9) | 34.7 (12.8) | <0.001 | ||
| Vegetables (g/day) | 316 (176.2) | 426 (200.9) | 505 (236.0) | 597 (285.7) | 780 (451.1) | <0.001 | ||
| Fruits (g/day) | 203 (179.0) | 281 (207.2) | 341 (244.9) | 402 (292.1) | 495 (375.8) | <0.001 | ||
| Legumes (g/day) | 22.0 (20.5) | 22.9 (17.8) | 23.1 (17.2) | 23.4 (16.7) | 22.5 (15.8) | 0.01 | ||
| Cereals (g/day) | 124 (85.5) | 105 (66.2) | 99.8 (60.9) | 93.0 (55.1) | 84.9 (47.6) | <0.001 | ||
| Wholewheat bread (g/day) | 7.6 (29.9) | 11.1 (32.5) | 14.1 (35.2) | 14.3 (29.6) | 17.7 (29.6) | <0.001 | ||
| Whole dairy (g/day) | 271 (236.7) | 227 (205.6) | 192 (175.7) | 164 (150.5) | 135 (117.6) | <0.001 | ||
| Low-fat dairy (g/day) | 152 (221.2) | 192 (236.3) | 219 (236.1) | 255 (245.5) | 308 (267.1) | <0.001 | ||
| All meat (g/day) | 159 (67.0) | 174 (67.5) | 179 (71.4) | 179 (70.4) | 175 (76.4) | <0.001 | ||
| Red meat (g/day) | 74.7 (43.1) | 79.7 (43.4) | 81.1 (44.6) | 79.0 (43.7) | 73.1 (45.9) | <0.001 | ||
| Poultry meat (g/day) | 37.7 (28.7) | 43.1 (34.1) | 46.3 (38.7) | 47.5 (35.4) | 50.9 (38.4) | <0.001 | ||
| Processed meats (g/day) | 38.5 (26.6) | 43.7 (27.3) | 43.9 (26.5) | 45.3 (27.3) | 44.8 (32.7) | <0.001 | ||
| Eggs (g/day) | 26.0 (20.6) | 23.9 (15.1) | 23.4 (14.0) | 22.5 (14.3) | 20.9 (13.0) | <0.001 | ||
| Fish (g/day) | 60.6 (34.9) | 83.0 (41.2) | 98.7 (46.8) | 112.4 (54.0) | 138.6 (81.2) | <0.001 | ||
| Nuts (g/day) | 5.8 (12.7) | 6.8 (11.2) | 7.6 (11.9) | 7.8 (11.4) | 7.6 (10.7) | <0.001 | ||
| Vegetable oil (g/day) | 4.2 (7.9) | 3.1 (5.6) | 2.5 (4.7) | 2.3 (4.2) | 2.1 (3.8) | <0.001 | ||
| Olive oil (g/day) | 19.7 (17.7) | 18.3 (14.7) | 18.5 (14.0) | 18.2 (12.7) | 18.0 (11.9) | <0.001 | ||
| Precooked foods (g/day) | 23.3 (30.1) | 29.0 (37.0) | 30.4 (40.7) | 30.1 (42.5) | 32.0 (58.9) | <0.001 | ||
| Fast-food‡ (g/day) | 22.2 (22.2) | 22.0 (19.3) | 21.2 (19.3) | 19.5 (16.9) | 17.5 (17.9) | <0.001 | ||
| Sauces (g/day) | 3.2 (4.7) | 2.7 (3.5) | 2.5 (2.9) | 2.4 (3.0) | 2.3 (3.4) | <0.001 | ||
| Cookies (g/day) | 27.0 (44.7) | 19.4 (28.4) | 16.7 (22.6) | 15.5 (20.1) | 14.8 (17.0) | <0.001 | ||
| Sugary products§ (g/day) | 20.2 (19.4) | 18.5 (17.0) | 16.8 (16.3) | 15.0 (15.2) | 11.9 (14.0) | <0.001 | ||
| Commercial sweets (g/day) | 16.2 (24.4) | 14.5 (20.0) | 13.6 (17.7) | 12.5 (16.8) | 10.9 (15.1) | <0.001 | ||
| Chocolate (g/day) | 18.8 (23.7) | 18.9 (21.0) | 18.0 (19.7) | 17.0 (16.7) | 15.0 (14.7) | <0.001 | ||
| Soft drinks (g/day) | 63.3 (120.0) | 56.9 (105.0) | 59.1 (113.6) | 58.7 (101.8) | 84.1 (169.0) | <0.001 | ||
| Fruit juice (g/day) | 70.3 (125.5) | 82.6 (110.6) | 90.2 (122.7) | 96.4 (127.7) | 108.3 (135.4) | <0.001 | ||
Continuous variables are expressed as means (standard deviations) and categorical variables as percentages.
*The p value was calculated through ANOVA for continuous variables and through χ2 test for categorical variables.
†Included daily hours of television viewing, daily hours driving, daily hours sitting and daily hours napping. Does not include hours slept at night.
‡Sum of sausages, hamburgers and pizza.
§Sum of sugar, jam and honey.