Skip to main content
Log in

Violence and Reproductive Health: Current Knowledge and Future Research Directions

  • Published:
Maternal and Child Health Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Objectives: Despite the scope of violence against women and its importance for reproductive health, very few scientific data about the relationship between violence and reproductive health issues are available. Methods: The current knowledge base for several issues specific to violence and reproductive health, including association of violence with pregnancy, pregnancy intention, contraception use, pregnancy terminations, and pregnancy outcomes, are reviewed and suggestions are provided for future research. Results: Despite the limitations of current research and some inconclusive results, the existing research base clearly documents several important points: (1) violence occurs commonly during pregnancy (an estimated 4%–8% of pregnancies); (2) violence is associated with unintended pregnancies and may be related to inconsistent contraceptive use; and (3) the research is inconclusive about the relationship between violence and pregnancy outcomes. Conclusions: Improved knowledge of the risk factors for violence is critical for effective intervention design and implementation. Four areas that need improvement for development of new research studies examining violence and reproductive-related issues include (1) broadening of study populations, (2) refining data collection methodologies, (3) obtaining additional information about violence and other factors, and (4) developing and evaluating screening and intervention programs. The research and health care communities should act collaboratively to improve our understanding of why violence against women occurs, how it specifically affects reproductive health status, and what prevention strategies may be effective.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  1. Tjaden P, Thoennes N. Prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women survey. Research in brief. Washington, DC, and Atlanta, GA: National Institute of Justice, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Stark E, Flitcraft AH. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Public Health Service. Healthy people 2010: National health promotion and disease prevention objectives, January 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000.

  4. American Medical Association. Diagnostic and treatment guidelines on domestic violence. Chicago: Author, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  5. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Domestic violence. Tech Bull 1995;209:1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  6. American College of Nurse Midwives. Position statement on violence against women. Washington, DC: Author, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Helton AS. Protocol of care for the battered woman: Prevention of battering during pregnancy. White Plains, NY: March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Children's Safety Network. Domestic violence: A directory of protocols for health care providers. Newton, MA: Education Development Center, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  9. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. The role of the pediatrician in recognizing and intervening on behalf of abused women. Pediatrics 1998;101:1091–92.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Family Violence Prevention Fund. Preventing domestic violence: Clinical guidelines on routine screening. San Francisco, CA: Author, 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Abma J, Chandra A, Mosher W, Petersen L, Piccinino L. Fertility, family planning, and women's health: New data from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth. National Center for Health Statistics 1997;23(19).

  12. Greenfeld LA, Rand MR, Craven D, Klaus PA, Perkins CA, Ringel C, Warchol G, Maston C, Fox JA. Violence by intimates: Analysis of data on crimes by current or former spouses boyfriends, and girlfriends. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Gazmararian JA, Lazorick S, Spitz AM, Ballard TJ, Saltzman LE, Marks JS. Prevalence of violence against pregnant women. JAMA 1996;275:1915–20.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Amaro H, Fried LE, Cabral H, Zuckerman B. Violence during pregnancy and substance abuse. Am J Public Health 1990;80:575–9.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Berenson AB, San Miguel V, Wilkinson GS. Prevalence of physical and sexual assault in pregnant adolescents. J Adolesc Health 1992;13:466–9.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Berenson AB, Stiglich NJ, Wilkinson GS, Anderson GD. Drug abuse and other risk factors for physical abuse in pregnancy among White non-Hispanic, Black, and Hispanic women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;164:1491–6.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Campbell JC, Poland ML, Waller JB, Ager J. Correlates of battering during pregnancy. Res Nurs Health 1992;15:219–26.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Gazmararian JA, Adams MM, Saltzman LE, Johnson CH, Bruce FC, Marks JS, PRAMS Working Group. The relationship between pregnancy intendedness and physical violence in mothers of newborns. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:1031–8.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Gelles RJ. Violence and pregnancy: Are pregnant women at greater risk of abuse? J Marriage Family 1988;50:841–7.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Helton AS, McFarlane JA, Anderson ET. Battered and pregnant: Aprevalence study. AmJ Public Health 1987;77:1337–9.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Hillard MJ. Physical abuse in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1985;66:185–90.

    Google Scholar 

  22. O'Campo P, Gielen AC, Faden RR, Kass N. Verbal abuse and physical violence among a cohort of low-income pregnant women. Womens Health Issues 1994;4:29–37.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Parker B, McFarlane J, Soeken K. Abuse during pregnancy: Effects on maternal complications and birth weight in adult teenage women. Obstet Gynecol 1994;84:323–8.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Sampselle CM, Petersen BA, Murtland TL, Oakley DJ. Prevalence of abuse among pregnant women choosing certified nurse-midwife or physician providers. J Nurse Midwifery 1992;37:269–73.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Stewart DE, Cecuti A. Physical abuse in pregnancy. CanMed Assoc J 1993;149:1257–63.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Webster J, Sweett S, Stolz TA. Domestic violence in pregnancy. Med J Aust 1994;161:466–70.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Cokkinides VE, Coker AL. Experiencing physical violence during pregnancy: Prevalence and correlates. Family Community Health 1998;20:19–37.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Martin SL, English KT, Andersen CK, Cilenti D, Kupper LL. Violence and substance use among North Carolina pregnant women. Am J Public Health 1996;86:991–8.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Smikle CB, Sorem KA, Satin AJ, Hankins GD. Physical and sexual abuse in a middle-class obstetric population. South Med J 1996;89:983–8.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Campbell JC, Pugh LC, Campbell D, Visscher M. The influence of abuse on pregnancy intention. Womens Health Issues 1995;5:214–23.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Dietz PA, Gazmararian JA, Goodwin M, Bruce FC, Johnson CH, Rochat RW. Delayed entry into prenatal care: Effect of physical violence. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:221–4.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Straus MA, Gelles RJ, Steinmetz SK. Behind closed doors: Violence in the American family. New York: Doubleday/Anchor, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  33. The noncompliant patient: She could be a victim of domestic abuse. Contraceptive Technol Update 1994;15:113–28.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Walker LE. The battered woman syndrome. New York: Springer, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Cabral RJ, Pulley L, Artz LM, Brill I, Macaluso M. Women at risk of HIV/STD: The importance of male partners as barriers to condom use. AIDS Behav 1998;2:75–85.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Boyer D, Fine D. Sexual abuse as a factor in adolescent pregnancy and child maltreatment. Fam Plann Perspect 1992;24:4–19.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Wingood GM, DiClemente RJ. The effects of an abusive primary partner on the condom use and sexual negotiation practices of African-American women. Am J Public Health 1997;87:1016–8.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Evins G, Chesceir N. Prevalence of domestic violence among women seeking abortion services. Womens Health Issues 1996;6:204–10.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Glander SS, Moore ML, Michielutte R, Parsons L. The prevalence of domestic violence among women seeking abortion. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91:1002–6.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Webster J, Chandler J, Battistutta D. Pregnancy outcomes and health care use: Effects of abuse. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:760–7.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Petersen R, Gazmararian JA, Spitz AM, Goodwin M, Rowley D, Marks JS. Violence and pregnancy outcomes: A research strategy. Am J Prev Med 1997;13:366–73.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Cokkinides VE, Coker AL, Addy C, Bethea L. Physical violence during pregnancy: Maternal complications and birth outcomes. Obstet Gynecol 1999;93:661–6.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Curry MA, Perrin N, Wall E. Effects of abuse on maternal complications and birth weight in adult and adolescent women. Obstet Gynecol 1998;92:530–4.

    Google Scholar 

  44. McFarlane J, Parker B, Soeken K. Abuse during pregnancy: Associations with maternal health and infant birth weight. Nurs Res 1996;45:37–42.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Curry MA, Doyle BA, Gilhooley J. Abuse among pregnant adolescents: Differences by developmental age. Am J Matern Child Nurs 1998;23:144–50.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Berenson AB, Wiemann CM, Wilkinson GS, Jones WA, Anderson GD. Perinatal morbidity associated with violence experienced by pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;170:1760–9.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Bullock LF, McFarlane JA. The birth-weight/battering connection. Am J Nurs 1989;89:1153–5.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Dye TD, Tollivert NJ, Lee RV, Kenney CJ. Violence, pregnancy and birth outcome in Appalachia. Pediatr Perinatal Epidemiol 1995;9:35–47.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Schei B, Samuelson SO, Bakketeig LS. Does spousal physical abuse affect the outcome of pregnancy? Scand J Soc Med 1991;19:26–31.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Helton AS. March of Dimes protocol of care for the battered women. White Plains, NY: March of Dimes, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Straus MA. Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics Scale. Marriage Family 1979;41:57–88.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Martin SL, Matza LS, Kupper LL, Thomas JC, Daly M, Cloutier S. Domestic violence and sexually transmitted diseases: The experience of prenatal care patients. Public Health Rep 1999;114:262–8.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Hudson WW, McIntosh S. The assessment of spouse abuse: Two quantifiable dimensions. Marriage Family 1981;43:873–88.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Campbell JC. Nursing assessment for risk of homicide with battered women. Advan Nurs Sci 1986;8:36–51.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Ballard TJ, Saltzman LE, Gazmararian JA, Spitz AM, Lazorick S, Marks JS. Violence during pregnancy: Measurement issues. Am J Public Health 1998;88:274–6.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Rodriguez MA, Bauer HM, McLoughlin E, Grumbach K. Screening and intervention for intimate partner abuse: Practices and attitudes of primary care physicians. JAMA 1999;282:468–74.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Wintemute GJ, Wright MA. Inital and subsequent hospital costs of firearm injuries. J Trauma 1992;33:556–60.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Cole TB. What can we do about violence? JAMA 1999;282:481–3.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gazmararian, J.A., Petersen, R., Spitz, A.M. et al. Violence and Reproductive Health: Current Knowledge and Future Research Directions. Matern Child Health J 4, 79–84 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009514119423

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009514119423

Navigation