Abstract
The social roles men and women occupy may account for gender differences in rates of psychiatric disorder. Women are thought to have poorer experiences within any given role (role strain theory), have more conflicts among their different roles (role-configuration theory), or have fewer role opportunities available to them (role accumulation hypothesis) compared to men. These theories are examined in a community sample (n = 4,745, 52% females and 48% males; Caucasian [84.2%], Hispanics [10.0%], African Americans [3.8%], Native American [1.4%], Asian [0.6%], and Pacific Islander [0.1%]). No gender differences in the overall rate of DSM, psychiatric disorders were found; however, differences were found for specific disorders. Although multiple roles were generally found to be associated with lower rates of disorders for both men and women, some role combinations were associated with a higher rate of disorders. The possibility that roles may be associated with both stressors and protective factors is discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Adelmann, P. (1993). Psychological well being and homemaker vs. retiree identity among older women. Sex Roles, 29(3/4), 195–212.
Adelmann, P. (1994a). Multiple roles and physical health among older adults: Gender and Ethnic Comparisons. Research on Aging, 16(2), 142–165.
Adelmann, P. (1994b). Multiple roles and psychological well being in a national sample of older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 49(6), S277–S285.
Al-Issa, I. (1982a). Gender and psychopathology in perspective. In I. Al-Issa (Ed.), Gender and psychopathology (pp. 3–27). New York: Academic Press.
Al-Issa, I. (1982b). Gender and adult psychopathology. In I. Al-Issa (Ed.), Gender and psychopathology (pp. 83–99). New York: Academic Press.
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.).Washington, DC: Author.
Aneshensel, C. S., Frerichs, R. R., & Clark, V. A. (1981). Family roles and sex differences in depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22, 379–393.
Barnett, R., & Baruch, G. K. (1985). Women's involvement in multiple roles and psychological distress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(1), 135–145.
Barnett, R., & Baruch, G. K. (1987). Social roles, gender and psychological distress. In R. Barnett, L. Biener, & G. Baruch (Eds.), Gender and stress (Ch. 5, pp. 122–143). New York: Free Press.
Barnett, R., Marshall, N. L., Raudenbush, S. W., & Brennan, R. T. (1993). Gender and the relationship between job experiences and psychological distress: A study of dual-earner couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(5), 794–806.
Baruch, G. K., & Barnett, R. (1986). Role quality, multiple role involvement and psychological well-being in midlife women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(3), 578–585.
Bourdon, K. H., Boyd, J. H., Rae, D. S., Burns, B. J., Thompson, J. W., & Locke, B. Z. (1988). Gender differences in phobia: Results of ECA community survey. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 2, 227–241.
Busfield, J. (1982). Gender and mental illness. International Journal of Mental Health, 11(1/2), 46–66.
Canetto, S. (1991). Gender roles, suicide attempts, and substance abuse. The Journal of Psychology, 125(6), 605–620.
Canetto, S. (1997). Meanings of gender and suicidal behavior during adolescence. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 27(4), 339–351.
Ciarlo, J., Tweed, D., Shern, D., Kilpatrick, L., & Sachs-Ericsson, N. (1992). Validation of indirect methods to estimate need for mental health services: Concepts, strategy, and general conclusions. Evaluation and Program Planning, 15(2) 115–132.
Cleary, P. D. (1987). Gender differences in stress related disorders. In R. C. Barnett, L. Biener, & G. K. Baruch (Eds.), Gender and stress (pp. 39–72). New York: Free Press.
Cleary, P. D., & Mechanic, D. (1983). Sex differences in psychological distress among married people. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 111–121.
Cooperstock, R., & Parnell, P. (1974). Commentary and debate: Comment on Clancey and Gove. American Journal of Sociology, 81(6), 1455–1457.
Culbertson, F. (1997). Depression and gender: An international review. American Psychologist, 52(1), 25–31.
Dohrenwend, B. P., & Dohrenwend, B. S. (1974). Sex differences and psychiatric disorders. American Journal of Sociology, 81(6), 1447–1454.
Fox, J. (1980). Gove's specific sex-role theory of mental illness: A research note. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 260–267.
Gerstel, N., Riessman, C., & Rosenfield, S. (1985). Explaining the symptomology of separated and divorced women and men: The role of material conditions and social networks. Social Forces, 64(1), 84–101.
Golding, J. (1989). Role occupancy and role-specific stress and social support as predictors of depression. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 10(2), 173–195.
Goldman, N., & Ravid, R. (1980). Community surveys: Sex differences in mental illness. In M. Guttentag, S. Salasin, & D. Bell (Eds.), The mental health of women (Chap. 3, pp. 31–55). New York: Academic Press.
Goode, W. J. (1960). A theory of role strain. American Sociological Review, 25, 483–496.
Gore, S., & Mangione, T.W. (1983). Social roles, sex roles and psychological distress: Additive and interactive models of sex differences. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 300–312.
Gove, W.R. (1972). The relationship between sex roles, marital status, and mental illness. Social Forces, 51, 34–44.
Gove, W. R. (1979). Sex differences in the epidemiology of mental disorders: Evidence and explanations. In E. S. Gomberg & V. Franks (Eds.), Gender and disordered behavior: Sex differences in psychopathology (pp. 23–68). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Gove, W. R., & Geeken, M. R. (1977). The effects of children and employment on the mental health of married and not married men and women. Social Forces, 56, 66–76.
Gove, W. R., Hughes, M., & Style, C. B. (1983). Does marriage have positive effects on the psychological well-being of the individual? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 122–131.
Gove, W. R., & Tudor, J. F. (1973). Adult sex roles and mental illness. American Journal of Sociology, 78(4), 813–835.
Haavio-Mannila, E. (1986). Inequalities in health and gender. Social Science and Medicine, 22(2), 141–149.
Hammen, C. L. (1982). Gender and depression. In I. Al-Issa (Ed.), Gender and psychopathology (pp. 133–278). New York: Academic Press.
Hammen, C. L., & Peters, S. D. (1978). Interpersonal consequences of depression: Responses to men and women enacting a depressed role. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 45, 994–1001.
Helson, R., Elliot, T., & Leigh, J. (1990). Number and quality of roles. Psychological of Women Quarterly, 14, 83–101.
Helzer, J. E., Burnam, A., & McEvoy, L. T. (1991). Alcohol abuse and dependence. In L. Robins & D. Regier (Eds.), Psychiatric disorders in America (pp. 81–115). New York: Free Press.
Kessler, R. C., Reuter, J. A., & Greenley, J. R. (1979). Sex differences in the use of psychiatric outpatient facilities. Social Forces, 58(2), 557–571.
Klerman, G. L., & Weissman, M. M. (1980). Depression among women:Their nature and causes. In M. Guttentag, S. Salasin, & D. Belle (Eds.), The mental health of women (pp. 57–109). New York: Academic Press.
Marks, S. R. (1977). Multiple roles and role strain: Some notes on human energy, time, and commitment. American Sociological Review, 41, 921–936.
Marks, S. R., & MacDermid, S. M. (1996). Multiple roles and the self. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 417–432.
Miller, J. B. (1976). Towards a new psychology of women. Boston: Beacon Press.
Napholz, L. (1995). Indexes of psychological well-being and role commitment among working women. Journal of Employment and Counseling, 32, 22–31.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 259–282.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115(3), 424–443.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Grayson, C., & Larson, J. (1999). Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 77(5), 1061–1072.
Pearlin, L. I. (1975). Sex roles and depression. In N. Datan & L. H. Ginsberg (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology: Normative life crises (pp. 191–207). NewYork: Academic Press.
Pietromonaco, P., Manis, J., & Frohardt-Lane, K. (1986). Psychological consequences of multiple social roles. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10, 373–381.
Radloff, L. (1975). Sex differences in depression: The effects of occupation and marital status. Sex Roles, 1(3), 249–265.
Radloff, L. (1980). Depression and the empty nest syndrome. Sex Roles, 6, 775–782.
Reigier, D., Myers, J. K., Kramer, M., Robins, L., Blazer, D., Hough, R. L., Eaton, W., & Locke, B. Z. (1984). The NIMH Epidemiological Catchment Area programs. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 934–941.
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Croughan, J. L., & Ratcliff, K. (1981). The NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule: Its history, characteristics, and validity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 381–389.
Robins, L.N., Helzer, J. E., Croughan, J. L., Williams, J.B.W., & Spitzer, R. L. (1981).NIMHDiagnostic Interview Schedule: Version III. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Mental Health.
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Orvaschel, H., Anthony, J., Blazer, D. G., Burnam, A., & Burke, J. (1985). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule. In W. W. Eaton & L. G. Kessler (Eds.), Epidemiological field methods in psychiatry: The NIMH Epidemiological Catchment Area program (pp. 143–170). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Robins, L. N., Locke, B., & Regier, D. (1991). An overview of psychiatric disorders in America. In L. Robins & D. Regier (Eds.), Psychiatric disorders in America (pp. 328–366). NewYork: Free Press.
Robins, L. N., & Regier, D. (Eds.). (1991). Psychiatric disorders in America. New York: Free Press.
Robins, L. N., Tipp, J., & Przybeck, T. (1991). Antisocial personality. In L. Robins & D. Regier (Eds.), Psychiatric disorders in America, (pp. 258–290). New York: Free Press.
Romans-Clarkson, S. E., Walton, V. A., Herbison, G. P., & Mullen, P. E. (1988). Marriage, motherhood, and psychiatric morbidity in New Zealand. Psychological Medicine, 18, 983–990.
Sachs-Ericsson, N. (2000). Gender, social roles, and suicidal ideation and attempts in a general population sample. In T. Joiner & M. D. Rudd (Eds.), Suicide science: Expanding the boundaries (pp. 201–220). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Seiber, S. D. (1974). Towards a theory of role accumulation. American Sociological Review, 39, 567–578.
Seligman, M. (1974). Depression and learned helplessness. In R. J. Friedman & M. Katz (Eds.), The psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 83–113).Washington, DC: Winstons and Sons.
Tauss, W. (1967). A note on the prevalence of mental disturbances. Australian Journal of Psychiatry, 19(2), 21–123.
Thoits, P. A. (1983). Multiple identities and psychological well-being: A reformulation and test of the social isolation hypothesis. American Sociological Review, 48, 174–187.
Trovato, F. (1991). Sex, marital status and suicide status in Canada: 1951–1981. Sociological Perspectives, 34(10), 427–445.
Verbrugge, L. M. (1983). Multiple roles and physical health of women and men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 16–30.
Von Zerssen D. V., & Weyerer, S. (1982). Sex differences in rates of mental disorders. International Journal of Mental Health, 11(1/2), 9–45.
Waldron, I., & Jacobs, J. (1989). Effects of multiple roles on women's health. Women and Health, 15(1), 3–19.
Warr, P., & Parry, G. (1982). Paid employment and women's psychological well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 91(3), 498–516.
Weissman, M. M., & Klerman, G. L. (1977). Sex differences and the epidemiology of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 34, 98–111.
Weissman, M. M., & Klerman, G. L. (1979). Sex differences and the epidemiology of depression. In E. S. Gomberg & V. Franks (Eds.), Gender and disordered behavior: Sex differences in psychopathology (pp. 381–425). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Weissman, M. M., Leaf, P. J., Tischler, G. L., Blazer, D. G., Karno, M., Bruce, M. L., & Florio, L. P. (1988). Affective disorders in five United States communities. Psychological Medicine, 18, 141–153.
Wilsnack, S. C., & Cheloha, R. (1987). Women's roles and problem drinking across the life span. Social Problems, 34(3), 231–248.
Winokur, G., & Clayton, P. (1967). Family history studies II: Sex differences and alcoholism in primary affective illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 113, 973–979
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sachs-Ericsson, N., Ciarlo, J.A. Gender, Social Roles, and Mental Health: An Epidemiological Perspective. Sex Roles 43, 605–628 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007148407005
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007148407005