Elsevier

Preventive Medicine

Volume 16, Issue 2, March 1987, Pages 195-210
Preventive Medicine

“Proof” of cause and effect in epidemiologic studies: Criteria for judgment

https://doi.org/10.1016/0091-7435(87)90083-1Get rights and content

Abstract

A review of epidemiologic criteria for judging cause and effect emphasizes their empirical basis and points to their limitations for establishing “scientific proof.” The criteria are applied to a controversy concerning a putative detrimental effect of spermicides on spontaneous abortion and congenital malformations. The criteria indicate a lack of firm evidence for the contention that spermicides have an adverse effect on pregnancy outcome.

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