Skip to main content
Log in

Prevalence rates for depression by industry: a claims database analysis

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

To estimate and interpret differences in depression prevalence rates among industries, using a large, group medical claims database.

Methods

Depression cases were identified by ICD-9 diagnosis code in a population of 214,413 individuals employed during 2002–2005 by employers based in western Pennsylvania. Data were provided by Highmark, Inc. (Pittsburgh and Camp Hill, PA). Rates were adjusted for age, gender, and employee share of health care costs. National industry measures of psychological distress, work stress, and physical activity at work were also compiled from other data sources.

Results

Rates for clinical depression in 55 industries ranged from 6.9 to 16.2 %, (population rate = 10.45 %). Industries with the highest rates tended to be those which, on the national level, require frequent or difficult interactions with the public or clients, and have high levels of stress and low levels of physical activity.

Conclusions

Additional research is needed to help identify industries with relatively high rates of depression in other regions and on the national level, and to determine whether these differences are due in part to specific work stress exposures and physical inactivity at work.

Clinical significance

Claims database analyses may provide a cost-effective way to identify priorities for depression treatment and prevention in the workplace.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Alterman T, Grosch J, Chen X, Chrislip D, Petersen M, Krieg E Jr, Muntaner C (2008) Examining associations between job characteristics and health: linking data from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) to two US national health surveys. J Occup Environ Med 50(12):1401–1413. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e318188e882

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Andrews BK, Karcz S, Rosenberg B (2008) Hooked on a feeling: emotional labor as an occupational hazard of the post-industrial age. New Solut 18(2):245–255. doi:10.2190/NS.18.2.mC786874015427718

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Babyak M, Blumenthal J, Herman S, Parinda K (2000) Exercise treatment for major depression: maintenance of therapeutic benefit at 10 months. Psychosom Med 62:633–638

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y (1995) Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J R Stat Soc B 57:287–300

    Google Scholar 

  5. Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y (2000) The adaptive control of the false discovery rate in multiple hypotheses testing. J Behav Educ Stat 25:60–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Bonde JP (2008) Psychosocial factors at work and risk of depression: a systematic review of the epidemiological evidence. Occup Environ Med 65(7):438–445. doi:10.1136/oem.2007.038430

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2012) US Dept. of Labor. Injuries, illnesses and fatalities program retrieved Dec. 31, 2012, from http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/stress/qwlquest.html. Accessed 31 Dec 2012

  8. Bushnell PT, Li J, Landen D (2011) Group medical claims as a source of information on worker health and potentially work-related diseases. J Occup Environ Med 53(12):1430–1441. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3182363bbe

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2012) US Dept. of Health and Human Services. Quality of WorkLife Questionanaire

  10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services (2003) HIPAA privacy rule and public health. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ 52:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  11. Chandola T, Martikainen P, Bartley M, Lahelma E, Marmot M, Michikazu S, Kagamimori S (2004) Does conflict between home and work explain the effect of multiple roles on mental health? A comparative study of Finland, Japan, and the UK. Int J Epidemiol 33(4):884–893. doi:10.1093/ije/dyh155dyh155

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Cherry NM, Chen Y, McDonald JC (2006) Reported incidence and precipitating factors of work-related stress and mental ill-health in the United Kingdom (1996–2001). Occup Med (Lond) 56(6):414–421 (kql04110.1093/occmed/kql041)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Cifuentes M, Boyer J, Lombardi DA, Punnett L (2010) Use of O*NET as a job exposure matrix: a literature review. Am J Ind Med 53(9):898–914. doi:10.1002/ajim.20846

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Couser GP (2008) Challenges and opportunities for preventing depression in the workplace: a review of the evidence supporting workplace factors and interventions. J Occup Environ Med 50(4):411–427. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e318168efe200043764-200804000-00006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. de Castro AB, Agnew J, Fitzgerald ST (2004) Emotional labor: relevant theory for occupational health practice in post-industrial America. AAOHN J 52(3):109–115

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. de Jonge J, Bosma H, Peter R, Siegrist J (2000) Job strain, effort–reward imbalance and employee well-being: a large-scale cross-sectional study. Soc Sci Med 50(9):1317–1327 (S0277953699003883)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. DeSanto Iennaco J, Cullen MR, Cantley L, Slade MD, Fiellin M, Kasl SV (2010) Effects of externally rated job demand and control on depression diagnosis claims in an industrial cohort. Am J Epidemiol 171(3):303–311. doi:10.1093/aje/kwp359

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Dewa CS, Lesage A, Goering P, Craveen M (2004) Nature and prevalence of mental illness in the workplace. Healthc Pap 5(2):12–25

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Druss BG, Rosenheck RA, Sledge WH (2000) Health and disability costs of depressive illness in a major US corporation. Am J Psychiatry 157:1274–1278

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Eaton WW, Anthony JC, Mandel W, Garrison R (1990) Occupations and the prevalence of major depressive disorder. J Occup Med 32(11):1079–1087

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Fan ZJ, Bonauto DK, Foley MP, Anderson NJ, Yragui NL, Silverstein BA (2012) Occupation and the prevalence of current depression and frequent mental distress, WA BRFSS 2006 and 2008. Am J Ind Med 55(10):893–903. doi:10.1002/ajim.22094

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Frone MR (2000) Work-family conflict and employee psychiatric disorders: the National Comorbidity Survey. J Appl Psychol 85(6):888–895

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Furlan AD, Gnam WH, Carnide N, Irvin E, Amick BC 3rd, Derango K, Bultmann U (2011) Systematic review of intervention practices for depression in the workplace. J Occup Rehabil. doi:10.1007/s10926-011-9340-2

    Google Scholar 

  24. Greenberg PE, Leong SA, Birnbaum HG, Robinson RL (2003) The economic burden of depression with painful symptoms. J Clin Psychiatry 64(Suppl 7):17–23

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Grosch JW, Caruso CC, Rosa RR, Sauter SL (2006) Long hours of work in the US: associations with demographic and organizational characteristics, psychosocial working conditions, and health. Am J Ind Med 49(11):943–952. doi:10.1002/ajim.20388

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Grosch JW, Murphy LR (1998) Occupational differences in depression and global health: results from a national sample of US workers. J Occup Environ Med 40(2):153–164

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Karasek R, Theorell T (1990) Healthy work: stress productivity and the reconstruction of working life. Basic books, New York

    Google Scholar 

  28. Lane PW, Nelder JA (1982) Analysis of covariance and standardization as instances of prediction. Biometrics 38(3):613–621

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Langlieb AM, DePaulo JR Jr (2008) Etiology of depression and implications on work environment. J Occup Environ Med 50(4):391–395. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e31816fca08

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Lerner D, Henke RM (2008) What does research tell us about depression, job performance, and work productivity? J Occup Environ Med 50(4):401–410. doi:10.1097/JOM

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Lipscomb HJ, Dement JM, Epling CA, Gaynes BN, McDonald MA, Schoenfisch AL (2007) Depressive symptoms among working women in rural North Carolina: a comparison of women in poultry processing and other low-wage jobs. Int J Law Psychiatry 30(4–5):284–298. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2007.06.003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Meyer JD, Cifuentes M, Warren N (2011) Association of self-rated physical health and incident hypertension with O*NET factors: validation using a representative national survey. J Occup Environ Med 53(2):139–145. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e318203f220

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Muntaner C, Li Y, Xue X, O’Campo P, Chung HJ, Eaton WW (2004) Work organization, area labor-market characteristics, and depression among US nursing home workers: a cross-classified multilevel analysis. Int J Occup Environ Health 10(4):392–400

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Murray C, Lopez A (1996) The global burden of disease: summary, vol Summary. Harvard School of Public Health, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  35. National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago. (2012). General Social Survey retrieved Dec. 31, 2012, from http://www3.norc.org/GSS+Website/. Accessed 31 Dec 2012

  36. Netterstrom B, Conrad N, Bech P, Fink P, Olsen O, Rugulies R, Stansfeld S (2008) The relation between work-related psychosocial factors and the development of depression. Epidemiol Rev 30:118–132. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxn004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. SAMHSA (2007) Depression among adults employed full-time, by occupational category. The NSDUH Report

  38. Siegrist J, Starke D, Chandola T, Godin I, Marmot M, Niedhammer I, Peter R (2004) The measurement of effort–reward imbalance at work: european comparisons. Soc Sci Med 58(8):1483–1499. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00351

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Simmons LA, Swanberg JE (2009) Psychosocial work environment and depressive symptoms among US workers: comparing working poor and working non-poor. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 44(8):628–635. doi:10.1007/s00127-008-0479-x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Smith TD, DeJoy DM (2012) Occupational injury in America: an analysis of risk factors using data from the General Social Survey (GSS). J Safety Res 43:67–74

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Tse J, Flin R, Mearns K (2006) Bus driver well-being: 50 years of research. Transport Res 9(Part F) 89–114

  42. US Dept of Health and Human Services (2010) Health information privacy retrieved Aug. 8, 2010, from http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/. Accessed 8 Aug 2010

  43. van der Doef M, Maes S (1999) The Leiden Quality of Work Questionnaire: its construction, factor structure, and psychometric qualities. Psychol Rep 85(3 Pt 1):954–962

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Virtanen M, Honkonen T, Kivimaki M, Ahola K, Vahtera J, Aromaa A, Lonnqvist J (2007) Work stress, mental health and antidepressant medication findings from the Health 2000 Study. J Affect Disord 98(3):189–197 (S0165-0327(06)00266-7)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. von Korff M, Katon W, Bush T, Lin E, Simon G, Saunders K, Unutzer J (1998) Treatment costs, cost offset, and cost-effectiveness of collaborative management of depression. Psychosom Med 60:143–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Wang J, Schmitz N, Dewa C, Stansfeld S (2009) Changes in perceived job strain and the risk of major depression: results from a population-based longitudinal study. Am J Epidemiol 169(9):1085–1091. doi:10.1093/aje/kwp037

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Wang J, Smailes E, Sareen J, Schmitz N, Fick G, Patten S (2012) Three job-related stress models and depression: a population-based study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 47(2):185–193. doi:10.1007/s00127-011-0340-5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Wang JL, Lesage A, Schmitz N, Drapeau A (2008) The relationship between work stress and mental disorders in men and women: findings from a population-based study. J Epidemiol Community Health 62(1):42–47. doi:10.1136/jech.2006.050591

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Wang PS, Simon GE, Kessler RC (2008) Making the business case for enhanced depression care: the National Institute of Mental Health-harvard Work Outcomes Research and Cost-effectiveness Study. J Occup Environ Med 50(4):468–475. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e31816a8931

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Waters TR, Dick RB, Davis-Barkley J, Krieg EF (2007) A cross-sectional study of risk factors for musculoskeletal symptoms in the workplace using data from the General Social Survey (GSS). J Occup Environ Med 49(2):172–184. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3180322559

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Waters TR, Dick RB, Krieg EF (2011) Trends in work-related musculoskeletal disorders: a comparison of risk factors for symptoms using quality of work life data from the 2002 and 2006 general social survey. J Occup Environ Med 53(9):1013–1024. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181fc8493

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Wieclaw J, Agerbo E, Mortensen PB, Bonde JP (2005) Occupational risk of affective and stress-related disorders in the Danish workforce. Scand J Work Environ Health 31(5):343–351

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Wieclaw J, Agerbo E, Mortensen PB, Burr H, Tuchsen F, Bonde JP (2008) Psychosocial working conditions and the risk of depression and anxiety disorders in the Danish workforce. BMC Public Health 8:280. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-8-280

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We wish to gratefully acknowledge the collaboration and support of Highmark Inc., headquartered in Pittsburgh and Camp Hill, Pennsylvania, whose data is analyzed in this paper. We thank Brian Day, Andrea DeVries, and Cara Hirsch at Highmark for their assistance in establishing and guiding the project, and Jerry O’Donnell, also at Highmark, for his assistance with the data.

Funding was provided by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare they have no conflicts of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lawson Wulsin.

Additional information

The findings and conclusions in this paper are those of the authors, and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Occupational Risk for Depression Draft 4.16.13.

Appendices

Appendix 1

Sample definitions of SIC two-digit industries.

Source: United States Department of Labor (http://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/sic_manual.html).

Industries with high prevalence of depression

41: Local and suburban transit and interurban highway passenger transportation

This major group includes establishments primarily engaged in furnishing local and suburban passenger transportation, such as those providing passenger transportation within a single municipality, contiguous municipalities, or a municipality and its suburban areas, by bus, rail, or subway, either separately or in combination, and establishments engaged in furnishing transportation to local scenic features. Also included are establishments primarily engaged in furnishing highway passenger.

Transportation and establishments furnishing highway passenger terminal or maintenance facilities. Intercity bus lines are included in this major group, but interurban railways are classified in Major Group 40.

65: Real estate

This major group includes real estate operators, and owners and lessors of real property, as well as buyers, sellers, developers, agents, and brokers. Establishments primarily engaged in the construction of buildings for sale (operative builders) are classified in Industry 1531.

83: Social services

This major group includes establishments providing social services and rehabilitation services to those persons with social or personal problems requiring special services and to the handicapped and the disadvantaged. Also included are organizations soliciting funds to be used directly for these and related services. Establishments primarily engaged in providing health services are classified in Major Group 80; those providing legal services are classified in Industry 8111; and those providing educational services are classified in Major Group 82.

39: Miscellaneous manufacturing industries

This major group includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing products not classified in any other manufacturing major group. Industries in this group fall into the following categories: jewelry, silverware, and plated ware; musical instruments; dolls, toys, games, and sporting and athletic goods; pens, pencils, and artists’ materials; buttons, costume novelties, miscellaneous notions; brooms and brushes; caskets; and other miscellaneous manufacturing industries.

72: Personal services

This major group includes establishments primarily engaged in providing services generally to individuals, such as laundries, dry cleaning plants, portrait photographic studios, and beauty and barber shops. Also included are establishments operating as industrial launderers and those primarily engaged in providing linen supply services to commercial and business establishments.

81: Legal services

This major group includes establishments which are headed by members of the bar and are engaged in offering legal advice or legal services.

86: Membership organizations

This major group includes organizations operating on a membership basis for the promotion of the interests of their members. Included are organizations such as trade associations; professional membership organizations; labor unions and similar labor organizations; and political and religious organizations. This major group does not include business establishments operated by membership organizations, which are classified according to their primary activity.

62: Securities and commodities

This major group includes establishments engaged in the underwriting, purchase, sale, or brokerage of securities and other financial contracts on their own account or for the account of others; and exchanges, exchange clearinghouses, and other services allied with the exchange of securities and commodities.

27: Publishing and printing

This major group includes establishments engaged in printing by one or more common processes, such as letterpress; lithography (including offset), gravure, or screen; and those establishments which perform services for the printing trade, such as bookbinding and platemaking. This major group also includes establishments engaged in publishing newspapers, books, and periodicals, regardless of whether or not they do their own printing. News syndicates are classified in Services, Industry 7383. Establishments primarily engaged in textile printing and finishing fabrics are classified in Major Group 22, and those engaged in printing and stamping on fabric articles are classified in Industry 2396. Establishments manufacturing products that contain incidental printing, such as advertising or instructions, are classified according to the nature of the products for example, as cartons, bags, plastics film, or paper.

Industries with low prevalence of depression

79: Amusement and recreation services

This major group includes establishments engaged in providing amusement or entertainment services, not elsewhere classified. Establishments primarily engaged in operating motion picture theaters are classified in Industry Group 783, and those operating museums, art galleries, arboreta, and botanical and zoological gardens are classified in Major Group 84.

32: Stone, clay, and glass products

This major group includes establishments engaged in manufacturing flat glass and other glass products, cement, structural clay products, pottery, concrete and gypsum products, cut stone, abrasive and asbestos products, and other products from materials taken principally from the earth in the form of stone, clay, and sand. When separate reports are available for mines and quarries operated by manufacturing establishments classified in this major group, the mining and quarrying activities are classified in Division B, Mining. When separate reports are not available, the mining and quarrying activities, other than those of Industry 3295, are classified herein with the manufacturing operations.

16: Heavy construction other than building construction contractors

This major group includes general contractors primarily engaged in heavy construction other than building, such as highways and streets, bridges, sewers, railroads, irrigation projects, flood control projects and marine construction, and special trade contractors primarily engaged in activities of a type that are clearly specialized to such heavy construction and are not normally performed on buildings or building-related projects. Specialized activities that are covered here include grading for highways and airport runways; guardrail construction; installation of highway signs; trenching; underwater rock removal; and asphalt and concrete construction of roads, highways, streets and public sidewalks. Establishments primarily engaged in specialized activities that may be performed on buildings or on other heavy construction projects are classified in Major Group 17. These include contractors primarily engaged in painting (including bridge painting and traffic lane painting), electrical work (including work on bridges, power lines, and power plants), and carpentry work.

12: Coal mining

This major group includes establishments primarily engaged in producing bituminous coal, anthracite, and lignite. Included are mining operations and preparation plants (also known as cleaning plants and washeries), whether or not such plants are operated in conjunction with mine sites. The production of coal fuel briquettes and packaged fuel is classified in Manufacturing, Industry 2999. Establishments primarily engaged in the production of gas and hydrocarbon liquids from coal at the mine site are classified in Major Group 13.

37: Transportation equipment

This major group includes establishments engaged in manufacturing equipment for transportation of passengers and cargo by land, air, and water. Important products produced by establishments classified in this major group include motor vehicles, aircraft, guided missiles and space vehicles, ships, boats, railroad equipment, and miscellaneous transportation equipment, such as motorcycles, bicycles, and snowmobiles. Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing mobile homes are classified in Industry 2451. Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing equipment used for moving materials on farms; in mines and on construction sites; in individual plants; in airports; or on other locations off the highway are classified in Major Group 35.

33: Primary metal industries

This major group includes establishments engaged in smelting and refining ferrous and nonferrous metals from ore, pig, or scrap; in rolling, drawing, and alloying metals; in manufacturing castings and other basic metal products; and in manufacturing nails, spikes, and insulated wire and cable. This major group includes the production of coke. Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing metal forgings or stampings are classified in Industry Group 346.

45: Transportation by air

This major group includes establishments engaged in furnishing domestic and foreign transportation by air and also those operating airports and flying fields and furnishing terminal services. Establishments primarily engaged in performing services which may incidentally use airplanes (e.g., crop dusting and aerial photography) are classified according to the service performed.

34: Fabricated metal products

This major group includes establishments engaged in manufacturing industrial and commercial machinery and equipment and computers. Included are the manufacture of engines and turbines; farm and garden machinery; construction, mining, and oil field machinery; elevators and conveying equipment; hoists, cranes, monorails, and industrial trucks and tractors; metalworking machinery; special industry machinery; general industrial machinery; computer and peripheral equipment and office machinery; and refrigeration and service industry machinery. Machines powered by built-in or detachable motors ordinarily are included in this major group, with the exception of electrical household appliances. Power-driven hand tools are included in this major group, whether electric or otherwise driven. Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing electrical equipment are classified in Major Group 36, and those manufacturing hand tools, except powered, are classified in Major Group 34.

35: Industrial and commercial machinery and computer equipment

This major group includes establishments engaged in manufacturing industrial and commercial machinery and equipment and computers. Included are the manufacture of engines and turbines; farm and garden machinery; construction, mining, and oil field machinery; elevators and conveying equipment; hoists, cranes, monorails, and industrial trucks and tractors; metalworking machinery; special industry machinery; general industrial machinery; computer and peripheral equipment and office machinery; and refrigeration and service industry machinery. Machines powered by built-in or detachable motors ordinarily are included in this major group, with the exception of electrical household appliances. Power-driven hand tools are included in this major group, whether electric or otherwise driven. Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing electrical equipment are classified in Major Group 36, and those manufacturing hand tools, except powered, are classified in Major Group 34.

Appendix 2

Antidepressant drug names used for alternative case definitions for depression.

Amitriptyline, Amoxapine, Budeprion SR, Bupropion, Buproprion SR, Celexa, Citalopram, Cymbalta, Desipramine, Desyrel, Doxepin, Effexor, Effexor XR, Elavil, Eskalith, Eskalith CR, Fluoxetine, Fluvoxamine, Imipramine, Lexapro, Lithium carbonate, Lithium citrate, Lithobid, Luvox, Maprotiline, Mirtazapine, Nefazodone, Norpramin, Nortriptyline, Pamelor, Paroxetine, Paxil, Paxil CR, Prozac, Prozac-Weekly, Remeron, Sarafem, Serentil, Sertraline, Sinequan, Serzone, Tofranil, Tofranil-PM, Wellbutrin, Wellbutrin SR, Wellbutrin XL, Zoloft.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wulsin, L., Alterman, T., Timothy Bushnell, P. et al. Prevalence rates for depression by industry: a claims database analysis. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 49, 1805–1821 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0891-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0891-3

Keywords

Navigation