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Neighborhood Deprivation Is Associated with Lower Levels of Serum Carotenoids among Adults Participating in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

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Abstract

Objective

This study tested the hypothesis that neighborhood deprivation will be associated with lower levels of serum carotenoids in comparison with wealthy residential areas.

Design

Cross-sectional, nationally representative survey data were used to assess the relationship between neighborhood level socioeconomic status and serum carotenoids.

Subjects

Seventeen thousand two participants aged 17 years and older from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were linked with 1990 census data.

Main outcome measures

Serum levels of lycopene, β-carotene, α-carotene, lutein/zeaxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin.

Statistical analysis

Multivariate linear regression was used to model the association of serum carotenoids and neighborhood deprivation, which is a summary index of 11 indicators for tract level socioeconomic status. Adjustments are made for individual level age, sex, years of education, household income, employment, race/ethnicity, body mass index, serum cotinine, alcohol use, physical activity, and serum cholesterol.

Results

Multivariate analysis revealed a negative and statistically significant association between high levels of neighborhood deprivation and β-carotene (β=−2.98 μg/dL [−0.06 μmol/L], P=0.00), α-carotene (β=−1.28 μg/dL [−0.02 μmol/L], P=<0.0001), lutein/zeaxanthin (−1.69 μg/dL [−0.03 μmol/L], P=0.00, β-cryptoxanthin (β=−1.34 μg/dL [−0.02 μmol/L], P<0.0001), and total carotenoids (β=−8.20 μg/dL, P=<0.0001). Lycopene was not related to neighborhood deprivation. Adjusted mean levels of carotenoids for high deprivation neighborhoods were lower than neighborhoods with low deprivation: β-carotene=8.72 μg/dL [0.16 μmol/L] vs 20.64 μg/dL [0.38 μmol/L], α-carotene=0.44 μg/dL [0.008 μmol/L] vs 5.56 μg/dL [0.10 μmol/L], lutein/zeaxanthin=13.79 μg/dL [0.24 μmol/L] vs 20.55 μg/dL [0.36 μmol/L], β-cryptoxanthin=4.57 μg/dL [0.08 μmol/L] vs 9.93 μg/dL [0.18 μmol/L], lycopene=22.07 μg/dL [0.41 μmol/L] vs 25.63 μg/dL [0.48 μmol/L], and total=49.56 μg/dL vs 82.36 μg/dL.

Conclusions

Neighborhood deprivation was associated with lower serum levels of carotenoids. There was a substantial disparity between low deprivation and high deprivation residential areas with respect to fruit and vegetable intake.

Section snippets

Sample

Data files from the 1990 US Census were merged with NHANES III to form a contextual file that included information at both the census tract and individual level. NHANES III is a nationally representative sample of 39,695 community-dwelling respondents from 1988 through 1994. The survey protocol for NHANES includes an extensive survey instrument covering prevalent medical conditions, diet, health-related behaviors, a medical examination, and laboratory assays of blood and other physical

Results

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for serum carotenoids by study variables. Mean levels of carotenoids decrease with increasing levels of neighborhood deprivation. The control variables follow expected patterns. Overall, higher levels of carotenoids are found among adults aged 65 years and older, women, non-Hispanic whites, employed, nonsmokers, former/never consumers of alcohol, physically active, nonobese, high cholesterol, incomes >$20,000, those with ≥12 years of education. In most

Discussion

This study examined the association of neighborhood deprivation and serum carotenoids using data from NHANES III linked with census tracts from the 1990 US Census. After adjustment for individual level demographic factors, SES, and health behaviors, neighborhood deprivation was negatively associated with four of the five carotenoids: β-carotene, α-carotene, lutein/zeaxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin. Disparities in carotenoids were striking between low and high deprivation residential

J. P. Stimpson is an assistant professor, Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth; at the time of the study, he was a postdoctoral fellow, Sealy Center on Aging, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston.

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  • Cited by (0)

    J. P. Stimpson is an assistant professor, Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth; at the time of the study, he was a postdoctoral fellow, Sealy Center on Aging, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston.

    A. C. Nash is a doctoral student, Department of Preventive Medicine and Community Health, H. Ju is a biostatistician, and K. Eschbach is an associate professor, Department of Demography and Organization Studies, University of Texas at San Antonio. At the time of the study, K. Eschbach was associate professor, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston.

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